Visuospatial Working Memory Task Research Articles

The effects of task-relevant saccadic eye movements performed during the encoding of a serial sequence on visuospatial memory performance.

Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) is a set of cognitive processes used to encode, maintain and manipulate spatial information. One important feature of VSWM is that it has a limited capacity such that only few items can be actively stored and manipulated simultaneously. Given the limited capacity, it is important to determine the conditions that affect memory performance as this will improve our understanding of the architecture and function of VSWM. Previous studies have shown that VSWM is disrupted when task-irrelevant eye movements are performed during the maintenance phase; however, relatively fewer studies examined the role of eye movements performed during the encoding phase. On one hand, performing eye movements during the encoding phase could result in a stronger memory trace because the memory formation is reinforced by the activation of the motor system. On the other hand, performing eye movements to each target could disrupt the configural processing of the spatial array because the spatial representation has to be updated with each movement to maintain perceptual stability. Therefore, this work was conducted to examine whether task-relevant saccadic eye movements performed during the encoding phase of a visuospatial working memory task affect the recall of serially presented targets. Results from two experiments showed that average recall accuracy was significantly higher when the spatial array (set size ≥ 7) was encoded using a covert strategy-that is, while participants fixated on a central target, in comparison to an overt strategy-that is, while participants moved their eyes to fixate on each target. Furthermore, the improvement in accuracy was evident only for targets presented in the first half of the sequence, suggesting that the primacy effect is modulated by the presence of eye movements. We propose that executing saccades during encoding could interfere with the ability to use a chunking strategy or disrupt active visualization of the configuration. In conclusion, this is the first study to show that task-relevant saccadic eye movements performed during encoding may actually reduce the spatial span of VSWM. These results extend the current knowledge about the role of eye movements in VSWM, and have implications for future studies investigating the VSWM.

On the neural mechanisms underlying the protective function of retroactive cuing against perceptual interference: Evidence by event-related potentials of the EEG

This EEG study investigated the protective effect of retroactive attentional focusing on working memory. To this effect, we used a visuo-spatial working memory task and presented block-wise distractor displays after working memory contents had been updated by means of a retroactive cue (retro-cue). Retroactive attention attenuated the interfering effect of distractors on memory precision. The reduction of working memory load by means of a selective retro-cue was reflected by a decline of a negative slow wave over parietal sites. Posterior N1 to the distractor was reduced following a selective retro-cue compared to a neutral retro-cue condition, most notably at left hemispheric sites. P3b referred to the distractor was suppressed completely only following a selective retro-cue. This suggests that focusing on only a subset of visuo-spatial information represented in working memory releases cognitive resources for preventing the in-depth processing of subsequently irrelevant visual events, thereby inhibiting their transfer into working memory.

Spatial working memory in neurofibromatosis 1: Altered neural activity and functional connectivity.

BackgroundNeurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1) is a genetic disorder that disrupts central nervous system development and neuronal function. Cognitively, NF1 is characterized by difficulties with executive control and visuospatial abilities. Little is known about the neural substrates underlying these deficits. The current study utilized Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) functional MRI (fMRI) to explore the neural correlates of spatial working memory (WM) deficits in patients with NF1.MethodsBOLD images were acquired from 23 adults with NF1 (age M = 32.69; 61% male) and 25 matched healthy controls (age M = 33.08; 64% male) during an in-scanner visuo-spatial WM task. Whole brain functional and psycho-physiological interaction analyses were utilized to investigate neural activity and functional connectivity, respectively, during visuo-spatial WM performance. Participants also completed behavioral measures of spatial reasoning and verbal WM.ResultsRelative to healthy controls, participants with NF1 showed reduced recruitment of key components of WM circuitry, the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right parietal cortex. In addition, healthy controls exhibited greater simultaneous deactivation between the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and temporal regions than NF1 patients. In contrast, NF1 patients showed greater PCC and bilateral parietal connectivity with visual cortices as well as between the PCC and the cerebellum. In NF1 participants, increased functional coupling of the PCC with frontal and parietal regions was associated with better spatial reasoning and WM performance, respectively; these relationships were not observed in controls.ConclusionsDysfunctional engagement of WM circuitry, and aberrant functional connectivity of ‘task-negative’ regions in NF1 patients may underlie spatial WM difficulties characteristic of the disorder.

Superordinate Level Processing Has Priority Over Basic-Level Processing in Scene Gist Recognition.

By combining a perceptual discrimination task and a visuospatial working memory task, the present study examined the effects of visuospatial working memory load on the hierarchical processing of scene gist. In the perceptual discrimination task, two scene images from the same (manmade–manmade pairing or natural–natural pairing) or different superordinate level categories (manmade–natural pairing) were presented simultaneously, and participants were asked to judge whether these two images belonged to the same basic-level category (e.g., street–street pairing) or not (e.g., street–highway pairing). In the concurrent working memory task, spatial load (position-based load in Experiment 1) and object load (figure-based load in Experiment 2) were manipulated. The results were as follows: (a) spatial load and object load have stronger effects on discrimination of same basic-level scene pairing than same superordinate level scene pairing; (b) spatial load has a larger impact on the discrimination of scene pairings at early stages than at later stages; on the contrary, object information has a larger influence on at later stages than at early stages. It followed that superordinate level processing has priority over basic-level processing in scene gist recognition and spatial information contributes to the earlier and object information to the later stages in scene gist recognition.

The Effect of Binaural Beats on Visuospatial Working Memory and Cortical Connectivity.

Binaural beats utilize a phenomenon that occurs within the cortex when two different frequencies are presented separately to each ear. This procedure produces a third phantom binaural beat, whose frequency is equal to the difference of the two presented tones and which can be manipulated for non-invasive brain stimulation. The effects of binaural beats on working memory, the system in control of temporary retention and online organization of thoughts for successful goal directed behavior, have not been well studied. Furthermore, no studies have evaluated the effects of binaural beats on brain connectivity during working memory tasks. In this study, we determined the effects of different acoustic stimulation conditions on participant response accuracy and cortical network topology, as measured by EEG recordings, during a visuospatial working memory task. Three acoustic stimulation control conditions and three binaural beat stimulation conditions were used: None, Pure Tone, Classical Music, 5Hz binaural beats, 10Hz binaural beats, and 15Hz binaural beats. We found that listening to 15Hz binaural beats during a visuospatial working memory task not only increased the response accuracy, but also modified the strengths of the cortical networks during the task. The three auditory control conditions and the 5Hz and 10Hz binaural beats all decreased accuracy. Based on graphical network analyses, the cortical activity during 15Hz binaural beats produced networks characteristic of high information transfer with consistent connection strengths throughout the visuospatial working memory task.

Identifying early links between temperament, short-term and working memory in preschoolers

ABSTRACTThe present study aimed to investigate early interrelationships between temperament, short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM), while also relating them to incipient anxious traits in a sample of 4–7-year-olds. Preschoolers were evaluated using verbal and visuospatial STM and WM tasks, while parental reports were used to assess children’s temperamental predispositions (impulsivity, negative affect, and effortful control) and trait anxiety. Although STM and WM performances increased with age, findings revealed that irrespective of age-related improvements, (1) greater visuospatial short-term spans were predicted by higher levels of effortful control, and by lower levels of impulsivity and (2) better verbal and visuospatial WM performances were predicted by lower levels of impulsivity. The analyses did not confirm the anticipated impact of negative affect and trait anxiety; yet the overall low levels of trait anxiety impede us from drawing firm conclusions. Current findings expand our understanding regarding WM development variations by emphasizing the influential role of temperament.

Hyperactivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The influence of underlying visuospatial working memory and self-control processes

Changes in motor activity were examined across control and executive function (EF) tasks that differ with regard to demands placed on visuospatial working memory (VS-WM) and self-control processes. Motor activity was measured via actigraphy in 8- to 12-year-old boys with (n=15) and without (n=17) attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during the completion of VS-WM, self-control, and control tasks. Results indicated that boys with ADHD, relative to typically developing boys, exhibited greater motor activity across tasks, and both groups’ activity was greater during EF tasks relative to control tasks. Lastly, VS-WM performance, relative to self-control performance, accounted for significantly more variance in activity across both VS-WM and self-control tasks. Collectively, findings suggest that ADHD-related hyperactivity is positively related to increased cognitive demands and appears to be better explained by deficient VS-WM rather than insufficient self-control.

Spatio-Temporal Parameters of Gait Changes Following Different Working Memory Tasks in Elderly

Introduction: The literature indicates quite clearly that the gait in elderly is affected by concurrent cognitive tasks. However, how different working memory subsystems’ activation influences gait is still unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of working memory task on onspatio-temporal parameters of gait in elderly. Materials and Methods: 12 elderly with the mean age of 67.52 ± 2.19 years were selected through conveniece sampling. They took part in 3 testing conditions including single walking, walking while visuospatial sketchpad component of working memory was activated and walking while phonological loop component of working memory was activated. The participants performed 12 trials in each condition from which 6 trials were selected for further analysis. In dual task condition, 6 trials in which the participants had completed the working memory task correctly were selected, while in the single task condition, these 6 trials were selected randomly. The walking trials were recorded by Motion Analysis system. Repeated measure ANOVAwas used to analyze the gait parameters. Results: There were significant differences between 3 testing conditions in gait speed (F (2,142) = 64.54; P < 0.05), step length (F (2,142) = 45.82, p < 0.05) and step width (F (2,142) = 16.36, p < 0.05). Conclusion: Visuospatial working memory task led to shorter step length, wider step width and slower gait, hence interfered more with elderly gait in comparison to phonological loop working memory task. It seems that there are common cortical networks for gait control and visuospatial processing. Therefore, visuospatial dual task interventions might enhance elderlies’ gait.

Simultaneous recording of EEG and fNIRS during visuo-spatial and facial expression processing in a dual task paradigm

Emotional processing is probably the most crucial tool for orienting oneself in our everyday social life and has been considered to be highly automatic for a long time. Dual task (DT) research shows that information competing for working memory resources impairs the identification of emotional facial expressions. Effects of cognitive load in DT paradigms have been confirmed in numerous neuroimaging studies. However, interference occurring during a DT comprised of decoding emotional facial expressions and a visuo-spatial working memory task has yet to be visualized.To investigate the DT interference effect on brain areas associated not only with working memory, but also emotional and visuo-spatial processing, we recorded brain activation within the prefrontal cortex and parietal-occipital sensory areas using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and electroencephalography (EEG) simultaneously. Our study consisted of N = 36 participants (27 female) performing the following tasks: a) Corsi blocks, b) identification of emotional facial expressions or c) DT comprising of tasks a) and b).We predicted higher activation of the prefrontal cortex during DT and corresponding reduced P100 and P300 amplitudes.As expected, fNIRS measurements revealed significantly higher neuronal activation within the prefrontal cortex in the DT condition. When comparing DT to the single tasks, the P100 amplitude was reduced, but the P300 amplitude did not show the expected reduction.Our findings underline that at least some aspects of emotional processing are not entirely automatic, but depend on prefrontal control and are therefore affected by cognitive load, in particular visuo-spatial working memory resources.

Impaired retrieval processes evident during visual working memory in schizophrenia

Prominent working memory (WM) deficits have been observed in people with schizophrenia (PSZ) across multiple sensory modalities, including the visuospatial realm. Electrophysiological abnormalities noted during early visual processing as well as later cognitive functions in PSZ may underlie deficiencies in WM ability, though the mechanisms linking behavior to neural responses are not well understood. WM dysfunction has also been observed in biological relatives of PSZ (REL) and therefore may be a manifestation of genetic liability for the disorder. We administered a delayed response visuospatial WM task to 23 PSZ, 30 of their REL, and 37 healthy controls (CTRL) to better understand the contributions of neural abnormalities to WM performance deficits associated with schizophrenia. PSZ performed more poorly on the WM task and failed to effectively process distractor stimuli as well as CTRL and REL. N1 electrophysiological responses to probes during retrieval differentiated the type and locations of stimuli presented during encoding in CTRL. Retrieval N1 responses in PSZ, however, failed to do so, while retrieval responses in REL showed more pronounced differentiation of stimulus features during encoding. Furthermore, neural responses during retrieval predicted behavioral performance in PSZ and REL, but not CTRL. These results suggest that retrieval processes are particularly important to efficient visuospatial WM function in PSZ and REL, and support further investigation of WM retrieval as a potential target for improving overall WM function through clinical intervention.

Functional brain microstate predicts the outcome in a visuospatial working memory task

Humans have limited capacity of processing just up to 4 integrated items of information in the working memory. Thus, it is inevitable to commit more errors when challenged with high memory loads. However, the neural mechanisms that determine the accuracy of response at high memory loads still remain unclear. High temporal resolution of Electroencephalography (EEG) technique makes it the best tool to resolve the temporal dynamics of brain networks. EEG-defined microstate is the quasi-stable scalp electrical potential topography that represents the momentary functional state of brain. Thus, it has been possible to assess the information processing currently performed by the brain using EEG microstate analysis. We hypothesize that the EEG microstate preceding the trial could determine its outcome in a visuospatial working memory (VSWM) task. Twenty-four healthy participants performed a high memory load VSWM task, while their brain activity was recorded using EEG. Four microstate maps were found to represent the functional brain state prior to the trials in the VSWM task. One pre-trial microstate map was found to determine the accuracy of subsequent behavioural response. The intracranial generators of the pre-trial microstate map that determined the response accuracy were localized to the visuospatial processing areas at bilateral occipital, right temporal and limbic cortices. Our results imply that the behavioural outcome in a VSWM task could be determined by the intensity of activation of memory representations in the visuospatial processing brain regions prior to the trial.

ERP differences due to Type 1 diabetes in a visuospatial working memory task with different cognitive load demands

ERP differences due to Type 1 diabetes in a visuospatial working memory task with different cognitive load demands

Facial emotional recognition differences in patients with type-1 diabetes while performing a visuospatial working memory task: An ERP study

Facial emotional recognition differences in patients with type-1 diabetes while performing a visuospatial working memory task: An ERP study

Sex-Related Differences in the Effects of Sleep Habits on Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory.

Poor sleep quality negatively affects memory performance, and working memory in particular. We investigated sleep habits related to sleep quality including sleep duration, daytime nap duration, nap frequency, and dream content recall frequency (DCRF). Declarative working memory can be subdivided into verbal working memory (VWM) and visuospatial working memory (VSWM). We hypothesized that sleep habits would have different effects on VWM and VSWM. To our knowledge, our study is the first to investigate differences between VWM and VSWM related to daytime nap duration, nap frequency, and DCRF. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that the effects of duration and frequency of daytime naps and DCRF on VWM and VSWM differed according to sex. We assessed 779 healthy right-handed individuals (434 males and 345 females; mean age: 20.7 ± 1.8 years) using a digit span forward and backward VWM task, a forward and backward VSWM task, and sleep habits scales. A correlation analysis was used to test the relationships between VWM capacity (VWMC) and VSWM capacity (VSWMC) scores and sleep duration, nap duration, nap frequency, and DCRF. Furthermore, multiple regression analyses were conducted to identify factors associated with VWMC and VSWMC scores and to identify sex-related differences. We found significant positive correlations between VSWMC and nap duration and DCRF, and between VWMC and sleep duration in all subjects. Furthermore, we found that working memory capacity (WMC) was positively correlated with nap duration in males and with sleep duration in females, and DCRF was positively correlated with VSWMC in females. Our finding of sex-related differences in the effects of sleep habits on WMC has not been reported previously. The associations between WMC and sleep habits differed according to sex because of differences in the underlying neural correlates of VWM and VSWM, and effectiveness of the sleep habits in males and females.

Not all is lost in older adults' route learning: The role of visuo-spatial abilities and type of task

This study explores the role of age and individual visuo-spatial skills in different types of task after route learning. Thirty-eight young adults (24–35 years old) and 37 older adults (64–75 years old) completed visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) and rotation tasks. Then, after learning a route in a botanical garden, they performed environmental knowledge tasks. Older adults performed less well in route repetition, pointing, and map drawing tasks, but not for some demands within these tasks. In a shortcut task, older adults did just as well as young adults in choosing a shorter route to a landmark. After controlling for age, VSWM and rotation abilities predicted performance in the pointing task, only rotation abilities in the route repetition and map drawing tasks. Route learning accuracy in aging depends partly on the type of recall task used to test it, with a variable degree of involvement of individual VSWM and rotation abilities.

The relationship between different exercise modes and visuospatial working memory in older adults: a cross-sectional study.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between different exercise modes and visuospatial working memory in healthy older adults. A cross-sectional design was adopted. A total of 111 healthy older adults were enrolled in the study. They were classified by the exercise-related questionnaire to be in an open-skill group, closed-skill group or sedentary group. In experiment 1, the participants performed a visuospatial working memory task. The results indicated that both closed-skill (p < 0.05) and open-skill (p < 0.01) groups reached a higher accuracy than the sedentary group. Experiment 2 examined whether the exercise-induced benefit of working memory was manifested in passive maintenance or active manipulation of working memory which was assessed by visuospatial short-term memory task and visuospatial mental rotation task, respectively. The results showed that the open-skill (p < 0.01) group was more accurate than the sedentary group in the visuospatial short-term memory task, whereas the group difference in the visuospatial mental rotation task was not significant. These findings combined to suggest that physical exercise was associated with better visuospatial working memory in older adults. Furthermore, open-skill exercises that demand higher cognitive processing showed selective benefit for passive maintenance of working memory.

No Acute Effects of Choline Bitartrate Food Supplements on Memory in Healthy, Young, Human Adults.

Choline is a dietary component and precursor of acetylcholine, a crucial neurotransmitter for memory-related brain functions. In two double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over experiments, we investigated whether the food supplement choline bitartrate improved declarative memory and working memory in healthy, young students one to two hours after supplementation. In experiment 1, 28 participants performed a visuospatial working memory task. In experiment 2, 26 participants performed a declarative picture memorization task. In experiment 3, 40 participants performed a verbal working memory task in addition to the visuospatial working memory and declarative picture task. All tasks were conducted approximately 60 minutes after the ingestion of 2.0–2.5g of either choline bitartrate or placebo. We found that choline did not significantly enhance memory performance during any of the tasks. The null hypothesis that choline does not improve memory performance as compared to placebo was strongly supported by Bayesian statistics. These results are in contrast with animal studies suggesting that choline supplementation boosts memory performance and learning. We conclude that choline likely has no acute effects on cholinergic memory functions in healthy human participants.

Sex Differences in Using Spatial and Verbal Abilities Influence Route Learning Performance in a Virtual Environment: A Comparison of 6- to 12-Year Old Boys and Girls.

Previous studies have reported sex differences in wayfinding performance among adults. Men are typically better at using Euclidean information and survey strategies while women are better at using landmark information and route strategies. However, relatively few studies have examined sex differences in wayfinding in children. This research investigated relationships between route learning performance and two general abilities: spatial ability and verbal memory in 153 boys and girls between 6- to 12-years-old. Children completed a battery of spatial ability tasks (a two-dimension mental rotation task, a paper folding task, a visuo-spatial working memory task, and a Piagetian water level task) and a verbal memory task. In the route learning task, they had to learn a route through a series of hallways presented via computer. Boys had better overall route learning performance than did girls. In fact, the difference between boys and girls was constant across the age range tested. Structural equation modeling of the children’s performance revealed that spatial abilities and verbal memory were significant contributors to route learning performance. However, there were different patterns of correlates for boys and girls. For boys, spatial abilities contributed to route learning while verbal memory did not. In contrast, for girls both spatial abilities and verbal memory contributed to their route learning performance. This difference may reflect the precursor of a strategic difference between boys and girls in wayfinding that is commonly observed in adults.

Gender Differences in Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory Performance and Networks

Background: Working memory (WM) has been a matter of intensive basic and clinical research for some decades now. The investigation of WM function and dysfunction may facilitate the understanding of both physiological and pathological processes in the human brain. Though WM paradigms are widely used in neuroscientific and psychiatric research, conclusive knowledge about potential moderating variables such as gender is still missing. Methods: We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the effects of gender on verbal and visuospatial WM maintenance tasks in a large and homogeneous sample of young healthy subjects. Results: We found significant gender effects on both the behavioral and neurofunctional level. Females exhibited disadvantages with a small effect size in both WM domains accompanied by stronger activations in a set of brain regions (including bilateral substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area and right Broca's area) independent of WM modality. As load and task difficulty effects have been shown for some of these regions, the stronger activations may reflect a slightly lower capacity of both WM domains in females. Males showed stronger bilateral intraparietal activations next to the precuneus which were specific for the visuospatial WM task. Activity in this specific region may be associated with visuospatial short-term memory capacity. Conclusion: These findings provide evidence for a slightly lower capacity in both WM modalities in females.

Transcranial Stimulation of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Prevents Stress-Induced Working Memory Deficits.

Working memory deficits are prominent in stress-related mental disorders, such as depression, schizophrenia, or post-traumatic stress disorder. Similar working memory impairments have been observed in healthy individuals exposed to acute stress. So far, attempts to prevent such stress-induced working memory deficits focused mainly on pharmacological interventions. Here, we tested the idea that transcranial direct current stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), a critical neural substrate of working memory, may prevent working memory impairments after stress. Our results indicate that anodal stimulation of the dlPFC may indeed preserve working memory performance under stress, suggesting that the dlPFC plays a causal role in stress-induced working memory deficits and pointing to a potential new avenue to prevent stress-induced cognitive impairments.