Spatial Visualization Test Research Articles

Characterizing Computer Aided Design Performance: What can we learn from expert users?

Students who participate in engineering technical extracurricular teams such as Mini Baja and Formula Electric tend to have excellent Computer Aided Design (CAD) skills that often exceed that of their curricular peers with similar levels of education. This study characterized the differences in CAD performance between student CAD “experts” and their more novice peers. It was initially hypothesized that the baseline spatial ability between groups will be similar, but that specific differences in the quality of the technical drawings would exist between the groups. Three groups of students were studied: “Senior” students (Year 3 or more and on an extracurricular technical team, n=12), “Novice” (Year 2, not on a team, n=13) and “Junior” (Year 2 and on a team, n=7). Participants completed the same CAD task and a spatial test. The task output, technical drawings, were rated against a rubric by an expert assessor blinded to group membership. The scores were analyzed in MATLAB with a Mann-Whitney U-test. Junior and Senior students scored higher on a spatial visualization test compared to Novices, but only the Novice-Junior comparison met the criteria for statistical significance. There were no significant differences on any technical drawing criteria between Juniors and Seniors. Seniors’ assembly drawings were significantly better than Novices on the criteria relating to parts list and labelling. This contributed to a statistically significant difference in the overall assembly drawing score between the Novice and Senior groups, even though there was no significant differences in total overall score (part design, part drawing, assembly drawing summed together) between any groups or any significant correlations with spatial ability (measured by PSVT-R). Differences relating to expertise level (group) were primarily related to the more complicated assembly drawing task.

Navigating space: how fine and gross motor expertise influence spatial abilities at different scales.

Spatial ability, essential for navigating and interacting with the environment, comprises small-scale (e.g., mental rotation) and large-scale (e.g., spatial navigation) skills. Previous research underscores the influence of motor expertise on these abilities, yet comparative studies among different types of movement experts are limited, especially regarding the impact of gross motor skills on large-scale spatial abilities. This case-control study compared small-scale and large-scale spatial abilities among fine movement experts, gross movement experts, and non-movement experts. Ninety participants (30 per group) were assessed through computer-based spatial ability tests, including the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT: R), Mental Rotation Test, a navigation task developed in Unity 3D, and Triangle Completion Test (TCT). Fine movement experts excelled in small-scale spatial tasks compared to non-movement experts. Gross movement experts demonstrated superior large-scale spatial abilities, evidenced by lower errors in TCT and higher navigation scores, distinguishing their performance in spatial navigation and orientation from both fine movement experts and non-movement experts. The study highlights the distinct impacts of fine and gross motor expertise on spatial abilities, with gross motor skills particularly benefiting large-scale spatial navigation. These findings suggest potential clinical applications of gross motor training for improving spatial abilities in neurological populations, advocating for further research in immersive virtual environments and exploring lateral dominance effects on spatial performance.

Enhancing Cognitive Fit: Exploring the Potential of Mixed Reality for Developing Mental Rotation Skills

Mixed Reality is a promising venue for spatial ability training, allowing participants to engage in problem-solving through gesture-based interactions with holographic objects. 3-D measurement of learning in Mixed Reality environments may result in a better cognitive fit than 2-D. This mixed-method study measures and enhances mental rotation ability and investigates user experience in Mixed Reality. To assess mental rotation ability, we adapted the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test:Rotation for Microsoft HoloLens 2, creating a measurement tool for our Mixed Reality-based training program, Holomental. Comparing 2-D and 3-D tests, we explored how stimulus dimensionality influences accuracy and cognitive load. Our findings indicate that Holomental enhances mental rotation performance, both in 2-D and 3-D. Cognitive load in the 3-D test was lower than in the 2-D test. Semi-structured interviews revealed participants’ appreciation for the representational and interactional affordances of the training environment. This study provides valuable insights into the effectiveness of 3-D spatial training, with implications and suggestions for future design considerations.

Comparative Analysis of Augmented Reality in Engineering Drawing Course: Assessing Spatial Visualization and Cognitive Load with Marker-Based, Markerless, and Web-Based Approaches

This study investigates the integration of augmented reality (AR) into engineering education, with a specific focus on its impact on spatial visualization abilities and the cognitive load in the context of an engineering drawing course. The research employs a structured approach, involving three experimental groups utilizing marker-based (MBAR), markerless (MLAR), and web-based AR (WBAR) applications, in comparison to a control group receiving traditional instruction. The primary objective is to rigorously assess the comparative effectiveness of these instructional approaches in enhancing spatial visualization skills and reducing the cognitive load of undergraduate engineering students. Spatial visualization, a vital cognitive skill for engineering disciplines, is evaluated using the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT-R) questionnaire. The cognitive load of students is assessed with the help of a questionnaire comprising items related to mental load and effort. This study not only quantifies the impact of AR applications but also highlights subtle differences among the various AR modalities. The findings suggested that the group that used marker-based AR had better improvement in their spatial ability and felt less cognitive load compared to those who utilized markerless AR and web-based AR.

Evaluating 3D Apparel Simulation Technology's Performance of Creative Pattern-Cutting Techniques with the Assist of ASVT

Three-dimensional (3D) simulation technologies have experienced a significant rise in popularity in the fashion industry. Analyzing the efficacy of such technologies aids in pinpointing areas that require enhancement. While previous studies mostly focused on evaluating the fit and appearance of 3D simulation technologies with simple clothing styles, this research aims to assess the effectiveness of 3D fashion simulation software in producing digital designs that include creative pattern-cutting techniques known for their intricate structures and design complexities. Four designs were chosen to exemplify different design characteristics, and 95 people were recruited to assess the effectiveness of two cuttingedge 3D fashion simulation programs. Furthermore, the researchers utilized the apparel spatial visualization tests (ASVT) to examine whether the participants’ spatial visualizing aptitude would impact their assessment outcomes. The findings offer suggestions for enhancing the existing 3D simulation technology and provide instructions for the assessment procedure.

The effect of cognitive flexibility on students’ spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills in a three-dimensional design and coding training

ABSTRACT Aim and background Today, students are encouraged to develop spatial visualization ability to meet the challenges of digital technologies impacting their daily life and education when exposed more time to a virtual 3D environment. This study investigated the effect of cognitive flexibility levels on students’ spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills in three-dimensional design and coding training. In addition, this study examined the effect of the training on the spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills of the students. Method The study employed a one-group pre-test/post-test quasi-experimental design. A total of 60 university students (51 female and 9 male) participated in this study. University students received three-dimensional design and coding training by using Tinkercad. The Spatial Visualization Test, the Cognitive Flexibility Scale, the Computational Thinking Scale and semi-structured interview form were used to collect data. Paired samples t-test and one-way ANCOVA were used for the data analysis. Results and discussion Results from the training indicated that the students’ spatial visualization abilities improved. Their spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills were related to their cognitive flexibility levels. The training also improved the spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills of students with high cognitive flexibility. 3D design and coding education could be more effective for students with high cognitive flexibility. The qualitative findings supported the results of the study.

Visual-spatial Intelligence and Learning Modality Preference for Neuroanatomy Comprehension Among Medical Students

Neuroanatomy comprehension, an essential aspect of medical education, is important for understanding and diagnosing neurological cases. However, neuroanatomy is perceived as one of the most difficult subjects, thus contributing to the prevalence of neurophobia among medical students worldwide. This cross-sectional observational analytic study aimed to investigate the association of visual-spatial intelligence (VSI) levels and learning modality preferences with neuroanatomical comprehension levels among 229 freshman medical students of Universitas Sebelas Maret (UNS), Indonesia. VSI level was measured using the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Visualization of Rotations (PSVT:R); learning modality preference using the VAK or visual (V), auditory (A), and kinaesthetic (K) learning styles survey; and neuroanatomical comprehension level using neuroanatomy final examination. The results show a significant correlation between VSI and comprehension of neuroanatomy (r = 0.229; p < 0.0001), with notable differences in learning modality preferences. Students with visual preferences (V, VA, VK, and VAK) exhibited higher neuroanatomical comprehension compared to those without visual preferences (A, K, and AK). Visual learning modality preference was a significant predictor of VSI (β = 0.206; p = 0.006) and neuroanatomy comprehension (β = 0.161; p = 0.033), and VSI was a significant predictor of neuroanatomy comprehension (β = 0.305; p < 0.0001). This study highlights the importance of considering VSI and learning modality preference in the context of neuroanatomy comprehension among medical students.

Characterizing Computer Aided Design Mastery: What differences exist between expert and novice users?

The goal of this work is to characterize “expert” student CAD use and examine whether differences from novices are related to factors such as gender, seniority, co-op experience, and spatial ability. Participants were recruited from a second-year mechanical engineering course and extra-curricular engineering technical teams. The groups were Novice (Year 2, not on a team, n=13), Junior (Year 2, on a team, n=7), Senior (Year 3+, on a team, n=12). Participants completed a spatial task (PSVT:R, Purdue Spatial Visualization Test) and a CAD task while being asked to describe their process (verbal protocol analysis). Groups were similar in gender composition. The spatial task (PSVT:R) performance was not related to gender, year of study, or use of CAD on co-op. Spatial performance was related to team participation. Two major differences in process were coded. One was references to past work. Seniors were more likely to reference co-op experience than Novices (p=0.03), Juniors were more likely to reference academic work compared to Seniors (p=0.04). The other significant difference was the method used for construction. Seniors were less likely to use a “cut away” approach to making their part than Novices (p=0.004) or Juniors (p=0.002). Seniors were more likely to trace geometry and extrude their part compared to Novices (p=0.004). The difference in referenced prior work presents an opportunity for instructors as many more students participate in co-op than in extra-curricular teams. This could be leveraged by encouraging students to contextualize learning from co-op or by creating industrially-relevant assignments. The difference in approach to creating the object suggests that CAD instructors could be introducing students to higher level tools earlier. This could be done through assignments that authentically demand more complicated geometries.

Tenis Antrenmanlarının Bilişsel Kontrol ve Görsel Uzamsal Beceriler Üzerindeki Etkisi

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of accurate shot exercises in tennis on cognitive control and visuospatial skills. 15 sports science faculty student, 6 females and 9 males, aged between 18-22, with an average age of 18.53 were included in the research. Flanker Task and Spatial Visualization Test were applied to evaluate participants’ cognitive control and visuospatial skills. Tennis training was performed once a week, for half an hour, with 500 hits (forehand and backhand) and an average of 2000 hits in four weeks. After performing the normality test and descriptive statistics, Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was applied to compare the pre-test and post-test. The findings showed that there were significant differences between pre-test and post-test scores in the spatial visualization test (p = 0.019), correct response rate in the flanker task (p = 0.02=), and difference in reaction time between congruent and incongruent conditions in the flanker task (p = 0.02). Consequently, it can be concluded that tennis training significantly improved participants’ cognitive control and visuospatial skills. The fact that tennis is a sport that requires the use of space and uses open skills may improve individuals’ cognitive control and visuospatial skills.

Enhancing mathematical education with spatial visualization tools

IntroductionThis article highlights the innovative approach of incorporating spatial visualization tools in mathematics education, specifically focusing on the exploration of virtual environments and 3D printing. By integrating these advanced technologies, educators can enhance the learning experience and facilitate a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts. This research delves into the potential benefits and practical applications of these tools, shedding light on their effectiveness in fostering spatial reasoning skills and promoting active student engagement. The study aims to uncover new avenues for leveraging technology in the mathematics classroom and re-imagining the teaching and learning process.MethodsTo assess the progress in spatial visualization ability, the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (Revised PSVT: R) was administered as both a pre-test and a post-test to a sample of 255 students divided into control and experimental groups.ResultsThe findings indicate that the control group exhibited no significant development (p = 0.163) and had a minimal effect size of change (g = 0.035), whereas the experimental group demonstrated a substantial improvement in spatial visualization ability (p < 0.05) with a noteworthy medium effect size of change (g = 0.325). Furthermore, an analysis of variance was conducted to compare the mean normalized change in spatial visualization ability between the control and experimental groups. The results, with 95% confidence, establish that the normalized spatial visualization change is significantly higher in the experimental group. Specifically, the experimental group witnessed a 25% increase in spatial visualization skills, while the control group only experienced a 5% increase.DiscussionOur study demonstrates the significance and effectiveness of integrating spatial visualization tools in mathematics education to enhance students’ spatial reasoning skills and mathematics understanding.

Investigating Factors Contributing to Poor Performance in Teaching and Learning of N3 Assembly Drawing: A Case of uMgungundlovu TVET College

Poor performance in Assembly Drawing (AD) has been a significant issue in Engineering Graphics and Design (EGD) in high schools and TVET colleges. This poor performance in AD, which is a crucial component of the EGD exam, leads to students not performing well in Grade 12 and consequently limits their entry into engineering programs in TVET colleges. Consequently, this study aims to investigate the contributing factors to poor performance in the teaching and learning of AD among N3 students. To achieve the objectives of this study, a mixed research approach was employed, and data was collected through semi-structured interviews and the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT). A purposive sampling method was used to select four Engineering Drawing (ED) lecturers and 45 N3 Engineering Drawing students to participate in this study. Furthermore, Piaget's perception and imagery theory and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) were utilized as frameworks underpinning this study. The interview results were analyzed using thematic analysis, while the data from the PSVT was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings of this study indicate that N3 students have very low spatial visualization skills, and the negative attitude displayed by both students and lecturers towards the teaching and learning of AD contributes to poor performance in N3 ED. The findings further revealed that the lack of drawing-related teaching qualifications among lecturers also contributes to poor performance in AD. Furthermore, the quantitative findings show that the students achieved a mean score of 16.82, with a standard deviation of 8.389, indicating poor performance on the PSVT test. One limitation of this study is the small number of lecturers interviewed (four), which makes it difficult to generalize the results. Therefore, future studies should include a larger sample size of lecturers. This study recommends that lecturers be hired based on their relevant teaching qualifications and further suggests the use of technology to enhance students' spatial visualization skills and improve their performance in AD.

Design and Validation of a Virtual Reality Mental Rotation Test

Mental rotation, a common measure of spatial ability, has traditionally been assessed through paper-based instruments like the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) or the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT:R). The fact that these instruments present 3D shapes in a 2D format devoid of natural cues like shading and perspective likely limits their ability to accurately assess the fundamental skill of mentally rotating 3D shapes. In this paper, we describe the Virtual Reality Mental Rotation Assessment (VRMRA), a virtual reality-based mental rotation assessment derived from the Revised PSVT:R and MRT. The VRMRA reimagines traditional mental rotation assessments in a room-scale virtual environment and uses hand-tracking and elements of gamification in attempts to create an intuitive, engaging experience for test-takers. To validate the instrument, we compared response patterns in the VRMRA with patterns observed on the MRT and Revised PSVT:R. For the PSVT:R-type questions, items requiring a rotation around two axes were significantly harder than items requiring rotations around a single axis in the VRMRA, which is not the case in the Revised PSVT:R. For the MRT-type questions in the VRMRA, a moderate negative correlation was found between the degree of rotation in the X direction and item difficulty. While the problem of occlusion was reduced, features of the shapes and distractors accounted for 50.6% of the variance in item difficulty. Results suggest that the VRMRA is likely a more accurate tool to assess mental rotation ability in comparison to traditional instruments which present the stimuli through 2D media. Our findings also point to potential problems with the fundamental designs of the Revised PSVT:R and MRT question formats.

Promoção da visualização espacial com os softwares GeoGebra e Qubism 3D

Abstract Technology has driven new forms of teaching and learning with applications adapted to the various technological resources. For the discipline of Technical Drawing and Descriptive Geometry, technology has brought computer simulations that allow the visualization of experiences in 2D and 3D environments. In Mozambique, teachers adopt a traditional teaching method, without using technological resources, which can make it difficult to understand the content related to Orthogonal Projection and Cylindrical Section. However, in this study, we employed simulations using the Qubism 3D modeling software, as well as the GeoGebra dynamic geometry software, adapted for smartphones. Computer Simulations allow the construction of geometric elements in a dynamic way. For this reason, the objective of this research was to apply spatial visualization tests to verify whether the two software programs mentioned really facilitate the learning of the topics Orthogonal Projection and Cylindrical Section. This study was motivated by the fact that secondary school students have difficulty in spatially perceiving 3D representations and their transposition to the 2D drawing sheet. It was a quasi-experimental case study, in a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach, whose instruments used were pre-tests, post-tests, the Cube Test and the Santa Barbara Solids Test. A total of 100 students involved, randomly distributed in groups (experimental and control). From the analysis of the results of the application of the spatial visualization tests, the data suggest that the students developed spatial cognitive skills. The data also indicate that the Qubism 3D Modeling applications and the GeoGebra dynamic geometry software promoted spatial visualization skills in the experimental group. The research leaves open future investigations for applicability of technological applications in the study of various other subjects in the disciplines of Technical Drawing and Descriptive Geometry.

INTERACTIVE SPATIAL TRAINING ANIMATES SEX DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE AMONG FIRST-YEAR ENGINEERING STUDENTS

In a 2 × 2 (sex × intervention) experiment we investigated sex differences in performance gains and transfer after training on a brief intervention that used interactive animation and virtual objects to improve performance on a spatial visualization task. Participants were male and female first-year engineering students at a large public university who scored in the lower 60th percentile of a distribution of their peers on the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test. Compared to the control group, trained participants of both sexes showed significant improvement on stimuli viewed during the intervention. Further, trained participants significantly outperformed untrained participants on a transfer task, with trained female participants significantly outperforming trained male participants. We suggest possible explanations for the lack of sex differences in performance on the trained task and for the significant advantage demonstrated by trained female participants on the transfer task. We propose that a female engineering role model may confer a motivational advantage to female entry-level engineering students.

The Politics of the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test of Rotations (PSVT:R) and its Use in Engineering Education

The Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT:R) is commonly used in engineering education to measure spatial ability in efforts to predict academic or vocational success, or as a placement test. However, the politics of the instrument are rarely discussed. Here I provide a critical review of the historical literature that provides the basis for current work using the PSVT:R. I examine the validation and popularization of the PSVT:R, discuss how the instrument may not actually measure mental rotation, and explain how the construct of ‘gestalt processing’ was created in an effort to raise the status of spatial instruments which favored men. I argue that the isometric imagery style used in the test, which is rooted in the masculinized discipline of engineering graphics, further politicizes the test. I discuss the usage of the PSVT:R in spatial training efforts targeting historically excluded groups, and how understanding the politics of the PSVT:R should inform future efforts.

A Test Development Study on Spatial Visualization for Second-Grade Primary School Students

This study aims to develop a new spatial visualization test (SVT) for second grade primary school students. The study employed the survey design, and the test was developed in accordance with the test development steps. According to the findings obtained as a result of the pilot study, the items were generally high difficulty levels, and they were very good items. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis findings confirmed the three sub-dimensions (mental integration, mental rotation, and paper folding) measuring spatial visualization skills. SVT, which was reduced to 10 items, was administered to 396 students; the KR-20 internal consistency coefficient was 0.63, the average difficulty index was 0.35 and the average discrimination index was 0.48. As a result of the study, a valid and reliable test on spatial visualization for second grade primary school students was obtained and it was concluded that students' spatial visualization was at a low level.

The effect of 3D modeling performed using Tinkercad or concrete materials in the context of the flipped classroom on pre-service teachers’ spatial abilities

ABSTRACT Background Spatial ability has an important place in science education, which is effective in raising future scientists. Although not in large numbers, studies show that teachers’ spatial abilities somehow affect their teaching practices in the classroom and thus the spatial abilities of their students. Purpose This study aimed to investigate the effect of 3D modeling activities performed by preservice science teachers in the Biology course using Tinkercad or concrete materials in the context of the Flipped Classroom (FC) model on their spatial ability. Sample The participants of the study were fifty-seven preservice science teachers studying at a state university in Istanbul, Turkey. Design and methods The study was designed according to the explanatory sequential design. The Purdue Spatial Visualization Test was utilized to investigate the effect of the implementation on the participants’ spatial abilities. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-four participants to examine their experiences regarding the implementation. Conclusions The results of the study show that 3D modeling performed in the context of the FC model, regardless of Tinkercad or concrete materials are used, improves the spatial abilities of preservice teachers, as well as 3D modeling with Tinkercad, is a more effective implementation to develop spatial ability. While the participants’ statements supported the quantitative results, they were toward that the classroom atmosphere they missed during the pandemic process was created by the FC model’s in-class process and there was a significant improvement in their communication skills.

5612576 DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL SCREENING AND EVALUATION SERVICES FOR ADULTS LIVING WITH SICKLE CELL DISEASE: FINDINGS FROM A TWO-YEAR PILOT PROGRAM

Background: Individuals with sickle cell disease (SCD) may experience diffuse brain injury, impacting neurocognitive development. They may also experience overt strokes and silent cerebral infarcts. These infarcts lead to impaired cognitive functioning across various domains including difficulties with aspects of executive functioning, working memory, processing speed, general intellectual abilities, and difficulties with learning. Research suggests the long-term consequences of these deficits in childhood are likely to have an impact on individuals’ lives as adults. Unfortunately, within the United States, neuropsychological screenings and evaluations are not considered a standard of care for SCD. Ensuring individuals with SCD have these services is critical for optimal care and improved health outcomes. Aims: Neurocognitive services are important for early identification, diagnosis, and treatment; and provide information about current level of functioning, including strengths and challenges. Neurocognitive data can inform strategies to increase health knowledge, adherence to appointments/medications, improve quality of life and prevent/reduce mortality rates. In July 2020, we were awarded a two-year grant to develop and implement a neuropsychological screening and evaluation program for adults living with SCD via an outpatient specialty clinic. Methods: Screening measures were used to detect cognitive dysfunction and challenges with attention and executive functioning. Fifty-one patients (18-73 years) were offered a screening, with 39 completing it. Fifteen patients were referred for further evaluation, with 13 completing a three-hour abbreviated neurocognitive evaluation to date. In this presentation, we will report results of these evaluations. Results: Ten patients were female, one transgender woman, and three were male. Ages ranged from 19-49 years (M = 28.5 years +/- 9.8); 12 were Black/African, and two biracial. Diagnoses were SCD-SS (n = 9), SCD-SC (n = 4), and one SCD-SB+ thalassemia. Five patients had had one or more strokes. Almost half (n = 7) performed in the lowest 10% of the normative population on a test of spatial visualization and motor skill. All performances on a test of visual-construction ability and visual memory were in the lowest 20% of the normative population, with six in the lowest one percent. Five performed in the average range or above on a test of cognitive slowing – the remainder scored very low on this test. In terms of areas of strength, many patients scored in the average range in areas such as verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning, demonstrated persistence and had found ways to compensate for cognitive related difficulties. Summary: With all aspects of the neurocognitive evaluation taken together, we found that consistent with the literature, our patients evidenced challenges with processing speed, working memory, and aspects of executive functioning. While research on the impact of SCD on visual spatial/visual motor, and visual construction abilities is scant, our patients demonstrated notable deficits in this area, warranting further research. Conclusion: Neurocognitive services need to become a standard of care for SCD care. Additionally, as providers we need to better educate our patients on brain health throughout their lifespan and advocate for access to these types of services.

Is this a real 3D shape? An investigation of construct validity and item difficulty in the PSVT:R

ABSTRACTThe Purdue Test of Spatial Visualization (PSVT:R) is a widely used measure of spatial ability. Though the PSVT:R is considered to be a mental rotation test, degree of angular disparity between shapes does not correspond with degree of item difficulty. In the present study, we investigate the possibility that drawings that do not naturally look like 3D shapes could affect item difficulty in the Revised PSVT:R. We conducted a shape sorting task in which participants (N = 588) were asked whether shapes from the Revised PSVT:R looked like real 3D solid shapes or not. We also made a modified version of the Revised PSVT:R in which we changed which answer was correct and compared with performance on the Revised PSVT:R (N = 807). Some questions that should have been easier based on the degree of rotation instead became harder. Our results suggest that some of the isometric drawings in the PSVT:R may not clearly look like 3D shapes and that this fact may explain why item difficulty does not correspond to degree of rotation. Our findings raise questions about whether the PSVT:R can be considered to measure mental rotation as traditionally understood.

Enhancing Students' Visual-Spatial Abilities through the Use of Bonat Berakal Media in Understanding Shapes of Molecules

Students in 10th grade often get low learning outcomes on one of the chemical concepts, the shapes of molecules. Based on the test results, it can be seen that most students have difficulty on understanding and drawing the shapes of molecules. Many students have difficulty drawing shapes of molecules because shapes of molecules cannot be observed directly using the sense of sight, so students cannot project molecular images on their minds. The inability of students to understand molecular drawings in predicting the shape of molecules may be related to spatial visual abilities. The study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of using Bonat berakal media in enhancing tenth-grade students' visual-spatial abilities in understanding shapes of molecules. The students from classes A, B, and C in academic year 2022/2023 at SMAN 1 Tuban participated in the study. The research design was one group pre-test post-test. The instruments used were a teaching module on shapes of molecules and a spatial visual test. The data was analyzed using N-Gain score. The results showed that the pre-test average of students' spatial visual abilities was low but improved to a high category post-test. The study concluded that the use of Bonat berakal media was effective in improving students' visual-spatial abilities in shapes of melecules concepts, as indicated by an N-Gain score of 0.620.