Visual-motor Integration Skills Research Articles

Structural deviations of the posterior fossa and the cerebellum and their cognitive links in a neurodevelopmental deletion syndrome.

High-impact genetic variants associated with neurodevelopmental disorders provide biologically-defined entry points for mechanistic investigation. The 3q29 deletion (3q29Del) is one such variant, conferring a 40-100-fold increased risk for schizophrenia, as well as high risk for autism and intellectual disability. However, the mechanisms leading to neurodevelopmental disability remain largely unknown. Here, we report the first in vivo quantitative neuroimaging study in individuals with 3q29Del (N = 24) and neurotypical controls (N = 1608) using structural MRI. Given prior radiology reports of posterior fossa abnormalities in 3q29Del, we focused our investigation on the cerebellum and its tissue-types and lobules. Additionally, we compared the prevalence of cystic/cyst-like malformations of the posterior fossa between 3q29Del and controls and examined the association between neuroanatomical findings and quantitative traits to probe gene-brain-behavior relationships. 3q29Del participants had smaller cerebellar cortex volumes than controls, before and after correction for intracranial volume (ICV). An anterior-posterior gradient emerged in finer grained lobule-based and voxel-wise analyses. 3q29Del participants also had larger cerebellar white matter volumes than controls following ICV-correction and displayed elevated rates of posterior fossa arachnoid cysts and mega cisterna magna findings independent of cerebellar volume. Cerebellar white matter and subregional gray matter volumes were associated with visual-perception and visual-motor integration skills as well as IQ, while cystic/cyst-like malformations yielded no behavioral link. In summary, we find that abnormal development of cerebellar structures may represent neuroimaging-based biomarkers of cognitive and sensorimotor function in 3q29Del, adding to the growing evidence identifying cerebellar pathology as an intersection point between syndromic and idiopathic forms of neurodevelopmental disabilities.

Effect of Motion Imagery on Visual Motor Perception in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Control Trial

Background: Comprehension and visual-motor integration skills are still widely used in the psychological assessments of children. Recent evidence suggests that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) might have a general impairment in visual motion perception. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of motion imagery on visual motor perception in children with ASD. Methods: In a before and after clinical trial study, 30 children with ASD were divided into two groups of 15 subjects, test and control. The intervention group received 3 sessions of 60 minutes per week for 15 weeks with movement visualization exercises. Before and after the intervention and after the follow-up period, visual motor perception and motor imagery questionnaires were completed and implemented. The data were analyzed using SPSS22 software (P ≤ 0.05). The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine the normality of the data, and variance analysis was used to compare the averages of the two groups before and after the intervention and follow-up. Results: The results obtained in all subscales of motor imagery with P = 0.001 indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups in the pre-test and post-test scores. Additionally, the results obtained concerning visual motor perception showed that in all the subscales with P < 0.001, statistically significant differences could be observed after the intervention and in the 3 months of follow-up. Conclusions: Motion visualization is an easy and accessible method that has positive and effective effects on visual-motor perception skills. Treatment practitioners can use this method to improve ASD children.

Integrated Life Skills Training and Executive Function Strategies in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in Qatar: A Pilot Study of a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background and aim Executive function (EF) impairment is common in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). EF strategies are considered effective in improving the therapeutic outcomes of children with ASD. This study primarily aimed to explore whether integrating EF strategies combined with regular occupational therapy intervention is more effective in improving daily life skills (DLS) and sensory integration/processing (SI/SP) skills than regular occupational therapy alone in children with ASD and secondarily aims to assess treatment outcomes on improving visual motor integration (VMI) skills. Methods A total of 17 participants (13 males, mean age 4.29 years,standard deviation 0.66) completed the study. Following the baseline assessments, the participants were randomly assigned to the treatment group (45-minute once-weekly individual occupational therapy plus EF strategies) or control group (45-minute once-weekly individual therapy sessions alone). All participants received one intervention per week for 14 weeks. All children were systematically evaluated using a pediatric functional independent measure (WeeFIM) and the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) to assess DLS, the Short Sensory Profile 2 (SSP2) to assessSP/SI, and the Beery VMI test (Beery VMI) to assess VMI. Assessments were conducted at baseline, seven weeks, and 14 weeks of treatment. Results The analysis of the results between the treatment and control groups revealed that the treatment group had greater gains and significant differences in the mean values of both the WeeFIM and SSP2. In addition, notable distinctions were observed in the VB-MAPP transition subscale; although these differences did not reach statistical significance, they were clinically significant. Minimal differences were noted in the VMI between the two groups. Nevertheless, both groups showed statistically significant improvements across all outcome measures. Conclusions Our study provides preliminary evidence of the efficacy of EF strategies combined with regular occupational therapy for DLS, SP/SI, and VMI in children with ASD. The differences between the groups support further evaluation of the effectiveness of EF strategies for the next stage of a larger randomized clinical trial.

Test-Retest Reliability, Criterion-Related Validity, and Ecological Validity of the Test of Visual-Motor Skills, Third Edition, in Kindergarten Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder.

Establishing empirical evidence on the psychometric properties of the Test of Visual-Motor Skills (3rd ed.; TVMS-3) is helpful for guiding its use as an assessment of visual-motor integration (VMI) skills in kindergarten children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). To investigate the test-retest reliability, criterion-related validity, and ecological validity of the TVMS-3 in Taiwanese kindergarten children with DCD. A nonexperimental, descriptive, correlational design. A hospital in Central Taiwan. Fifty-seven kindergarten children with DCD were recruited in the study. Intraclass correlation coefficient, percentage of minimal detectable change, and paired t test (Wilcoxon signed rank test) were used to investigate the test-retest reliability of the TVMS-3. The correlations (Pearson's r) between the TVMS-3 accuracy score and the scores of each of the four domains and the adaptive behavior composite score of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (3rd ed.; Vineland-3) were calculated, respectively, to examine criterion-related validity and ecological validity. The accuracy score of the TVMS-3 had excellent test-retest reliability and acceptable random measurement error. Moreover, it showed good criterion-related validity and sufficient ecological validity with the Vineland-3 in Taiwanese kindergarten children with DCD. The accuracy score of the TVMS-3 is applicable to Taiwanese kindergarten children with DCD in clinical and research settings. Plain-Language Summary: The accuracy score of the Test of Visual-Motor Skills (3rd ed.; TVMS-3) is a useful assessment tool to detect deficits in visual-motor integration for Taiwanese kindergarten children with developmental coordination disorder. The TVMS-3 has excellent test-retest reliability, good criterion-related validity, and sufficient ecological validity.

Examining the Association Between the Computer-Aided Scoring and Manual Scoring for the Beery Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration (Beery VMI) and Children’s Handwriting Skills: A Convergent Validity Study

ABSTRACT Introduction Visual motor integration (VMI) is an important underlying mechanism for children’s handwriting. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI) is commonly used to assess children’s VMI skills, using a manual scoring method which can be prone to individual subjectivity and impact its sensitivity. This study investigated the use of the Computer-Aided Scoring System for scoring the Berry VMI (CASS-Beery VMI) to assess school-aged children’s VMI and handwriting skills. Specifically, the convergent validity between the CASS-Beery VMI and three standardized handwriting assessments was investigated. Methods A quantitative cross-sectional design was used. Thirty-five neurotypical Australian students aged 6–9 years completed the Beery-VMI–6th edition, Minnesota Handwriting Assessment (MHA), Evaluation Tool of Children’s Handwriting – Manuscript (ETCH-M) and the Here’s How I Write Assessment – Child version (HHIW-C). The Berry-VMI was scored using its original scoring method and the CASS-Beery VMI. Thirty parents of the child participants completed the Here’s How I Write Assessment – Parent version (HHIW-P). Descriptive statistics, Spearman rho correlations and regression analyses using bootstrapping were completed. Results The CASS-Beery VMI error scores were significantly correlated with the Beery-VMI score, and subscales of the MHA, ETCH and HHIW-P scores (r = 0.341– −0.555; p = .045–0.001). The CASS-Beery VMI error scores and Beery VMI raw scores were found to be significant predictors of the ETCH-M number legibility scores (adjusted R2 = 0.209; p = 0.017) and MHA form scores (adjusted R2 = 0.220; p = 0.007). Individually, the CASS-Beery VMI score was a significant predictor of the ETCH-M word legibility scores (Adjusted R2 = 0.305; p = 0.001). Conclusion Findings indicate that the CASS-Beery VMI can be used to assess children’s VMI skills. The significant correlations between the CASS-Beery VMI and other standardized handwriting assessments (MHA, ETCH-M and HHIW) adds to the body of convergent validity evidence that the CASS-Beery VMI can be a sensitive scoring method for Beery VMI when assessing children’s handwriting performance.

Impact of Retinopathy of Prematurity on Visual Motor Integration

Background: Preterm infants are at risk for neurodevelopmental deficits. An association between retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and impaired cognitive outcome has already been described. However, less is known about the impact of ROP on visual motor integration (VMI), which is a prerequisite not only for fine motor abilities but also for further school skills. Therefore, the aim of this study was to retrospectively investigate the impact of ROP on VMI at preschool age. Methods: The study was conducted at the Medical University of Vienna, including patients born between January 2009 and December 2014 with a gestational age of less than 30 weeks and/or a birth weight of less than 1,500 g. VMI was determined by Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration (Beery VMI) at the age of 5 years. Results: Out of 1,365 patients, 353 met inclusion criteria for this study. Two hundred sixteen of them had no ROP, while 137 had ROP (stage 1: n = 23, stage 2: n = 74, stage 3: n = 40). Mean value of the Beery VMI score was significantly lower in the ROP group compared to the No-ROP group (90 ± 16 vs. 99 ± 14; p < 0.01). By correcting for other important medical conditions, ROP still had a significant impact on Beery VMI score (p < 0.01). Particularly, lower scores were found for stage 2 (p < 0.01) and stage 3 (p < 0.01). Conclusion: Beery VMI scores were significantly lower in preterm infants with ROP stage 2 and 3 than in infants without ROP. This study shows the negative impact of ROP on VMI skills at preschool age, even after adjustment for key demographic and medical characteristics.

Spelling processing during handwriting and typing and the role of reading and visual-motor skills when typing is less practiced than handwriting

The automatization of handwriting and typing is sustained by both sensorimotor and linguistic abilities that support the integration of central-linguistic processes with modality-specific peripheral-motor programs. How this integration evolves when handwriting and, especially, typing is not fully automatized has not been well-understood yet. In the present work, we had two main aims: (1) to understand how spelling processing affects handwriting and typing word production in a sample of 9th-grade Italian students who have extensive handwriting practice but less experience with typing, and (2) to unveil if reading and visual-motor integration skills of the writer/typists have a role in integrating spelling processing and motor execution. Thirty-six 9th-grade participants handwrote and typed to dictation words and pseudowords of different lengths and orthographic complexity. To test spelling processing during handwriting and typing, we collected measures of latency (RTs)—i.e. the interval between spoken stimulus availability and starting to write—, of interletter interval mean—i.e., the mean of the intervals between consecutive letters—, and whole response duration—i.e. the execution time of the entire stimulus. We further assessed participants’ reading and visual-motor integration skills to analyze their impact on the chronometric measures as a function of the linguistic proprieties of the stimuli. Our findings show a different pattern of processing for handwriting, the automatized process for our participants, and for typing, for which stronger lexical and sublexical effects emerged. Furthermore, reading and visual-motor skills interacted differently with the two transcription modalities unveiling a modality-specific role of individual skills according to the automatization of handwriting and typing.

Comparisons of Children with and without Type I Diabetes on Hand and Visual Motor Integration Skills and on Participation in Daily Activities.

Our aim in this study was to compare hand skills, visual-motor integration skills, and participation in daily living activities of children with and without Type 1 diabetes (T1DM). In this prospective cross-sectional study, we included 44 children with T1DM (17 males, 27 females; aged 8-12years) and a control group of 45 healthy age-matched children without T1DM (22 males, 23 females). We compared group scores on the Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function Test (JTHFT), the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Visual Motor Integration Test (Beery VMI), and the Participation and Environment Measure - Children and Youth (PEM-CY). JTHFT and Beery VMI scores of children with T1DM were significantly lower than those of the control group (p ≤ 0.005). On the PEM-CY, children with T1DM were found to have more participation barriers in the community than controls. Relative deficits in hand skills and visual motor integration of children with T1DM should be managed with greater attention and assistance.

The contribution of inhibitory control to early literacy skills in 4‐ to 5‐year‐old children

Inhibitory control is associated with the pre-academic skills, nevertheless it is unclear the role of the diverse inhibitory control dimensions especially in the development of early literacy skills. In the present longitudinal study, the multi-componential structure of inhibitory control was investigated, and the roles of two different inhibitory control abilities were examined with respect to early literacy skills, with other variables (vocabulary, working memory, and visual-motor integration skills) controlled. A sample of 147 typically developing children from 4 to 5 years of age was assessed in the winter (T1) and then in the spring (T2) at a preschool educational center. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a response inhibition dimension and an interference suppression dimension. Path analysis was conducted to examine the contribution of these dimensions, considered formative indices, on phonological awareness and procedural writing knowledge, with the other variables controlled. The latent change score approach was used to investigate the variables associated with change in phonological awareness and procedural writing knowledge at T1 and T2. Our results demonstrated that interference suppression was concurrently associated with phonological awareness and procedural writing knowledge tasks together with the other measures at T1. Moreover, interference suppression is associated with changes in phonological awareness, whereas the other measures did not contribute significantly to literacy growth.

Efficacy of Visual Training Program for Students with Visual Impairment

This pilot study investigated the effects of a visual training program for students with low vision. A pre and post design was used. The Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration and the Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills were used to assess the perceptual and visual motor skills of fifteen students with low vision. Their mean age was (8.47 ± 1.12); and the mean of their visual acuity of was (0.12 ± 0.11). The three-part intervention program (physical worksheets, a computer-based intervention program, activities of visual perceptual skills) was implemented over four weeks (three sessions/week). Kruskal Wallis tests were used to examine the effect of visual acuity on the progress achieved, and the Wilcoxon-Signed Ranks test was used to identify differences in the scores pre-post intervention. Results showed statistically significant improvement in the visual perceptual and visual-motor integration skills. There was not any statistically significant effect of visual acuity on the progress achieved.

Latent Profiles of Teacher-Reported Self-Regulation and Assessed Executive Function in Low-Income Community Preschools: Relations With Motor, Social, and School Readiness Outcomes.

This study contributes to understandings of early childhood self-regulation and executive function, and their components, through taking a person-centered approach to investigating how these skills cluster together in children aged 4–5years. A sample of children (N=206) from preschools in low socioeconomic communities were assessed through teacher report of self-regulation and three executive function tasks at the commencement of the preschool year. Outcome variables included teacher report of social skills and behavioral problems, and children’s school readiness and visual motor integration skills were directly assessed. When the scores from this low-income sample were compared to available norms, over 70% of children scored below the 50th percentile in executive function measures, approximately 20% were below average in self-regulation skills, 48% were delayed in school readiness scores, 36% had above average levels of internalizing problems, and 25% were above average in externalizing problems. A series of four latent profile models each used different measurement approaches and combinations of self-regulation and executive function components. In three of the four models (two which combined self-regulation and executive function measures and one with teacher report of self-regulation only), a high skill and low skill profile were found with 31 to 42% of children in the low profile depending on the model. Children were very similarly classified across all three models. When three executive function scores were modeled alone, a more complex three-profile solution emerged (low, moderate, and high) with 52% in the low profile. Children identified in the low profiles across all models were at greater risk of poorer school readiness, visual motor integration and social skills, and increased behavioral problems. Taken together, the findings suggest that self-regulation and executive function skills tend to cluster together at this age and in this low-income sample. Composite scores of teacher report of self-regulation are somewhat sufficient in identifying children who also have poorer executive function skills and are at risk of poorer motor, social, and school readiness outcomes. These children are an important target group for additional supports prior to school entry.

THE EFFECT OF CO-OP APPROACH IN IMPROVING VISUAL MOTOR INTEGRATION SKILLS IN CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITY

The importance of visual perception, motor coordination and visual motor integration (VMI) skills for school achievements has been shown in various studies. Cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance or CO-OP is an evidence-based approach that has been effective in children with developmental coordination disorder and autism spectrum. The present study evaluated the effect of CO-OP approach in improving VMI skills in children with learning disability. Sample of 58 children were included in the study. National Centre for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) Checklist was used as a screen tool and pre and post intervention Beery VMI and Canadian Occupational Performance Measures (COPM) was used as outcome measures.Occupational therapy program using CO-OP approach, based on each childs individualized goals. children were thought global strategy of GO-PLAN-DO-CHECK the sessions were conducted for 12 weeks one hour a day three times a week. After 12 weeks post assessment was done using t test. There significant difference in pre and post CO-OP intervention. p-value was found to be less than 0.0001 for VMI, COPM performance and satisfaction whereas, there was significant difference in motor coordination and visual perception component of Beery VMI. The result shows that CO-OP approach is effective in improving visual motor integration skills of children with learning disability.

Systematic Review of Visual Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Disabilities.

Original research articles regarding visual motor integration skills in children with developmental disabilities and the impact of occupational therapy were identified, appraised, and synthesized. Twenty-four articles were chosen for this review. Themes were noted during the critique of articles. Three themes emerged: “age,” “gender,” and “diagnosis.” Regarding the impact on visual motor integration, there was strong evidence for age, moderate evidence for gender, and strong evidence for diagnosis. Future research investigating visual motor integration in children should control for age and diagnosis.

Implicit learning of non-verbal regularities by deaf children with cochlear implants: An investigation with a dynamic temporal prediction task.

Some deaf children continue to show difficulties in spoken language learning after cochlear implantation. Part of this variability has been attributed to poor implicit learning skills. However, the involvement of other processes (e.g. verbal rehearsal) has been underestimated in studies that show implicit learning deficits in the deaf population. In this study, we investigated the relationship between auditory deprivation and implicit learning of temporal regularities with a novel task specifically designed to limit the load on working memory, the amount of information processing, and the visual-motor integration skills required. Seventeen deaf children with cochlear implants and eighteen typically hearing children aged 5 to 11 years participated. Our results revealed comparable implicit learning skills between the two groups, suggesting that implicit learning might be resilient to a lack of early auditory stimulation. No significant correlation was found between implicit learning and language tasks. However, deaf children’s performance suggests some weaknesses in inhibitory control.

The effect of phosphatidylserine administration on cognition and symptoms of reactive attachment disorder ‐ a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled clinical trial in adolescents

BACKGROUND Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) occurs in 1% of the general population and is caused by a disregard for a child's emotional or physical needs, or a repeated change in caregivers. Children with RAD display persistent social and emotional disturbances resulting in underperforming at school. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a naturally occurring phospholipid that is most concentrated in the brain and has unique regulatory and structural functions. Supplementation with PS beneficially influences numerous neurotransmitter systems such as acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. PS improves the cognitive response to physical or mental stress, and has been shown to improve memory and cognition in healthy individuals. In addition, PS has previously been shown to improve symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and short-term auditory memory in children with ADHD. HYPOTHESIS We hypothesized that PS supplementation results in favorable changes in cognition and RAD symptoms in adolescents. METHODS Thirty male and female adolescents (PS: n=14 (11 male, 3 female), 17.7±3.3 years; PLA n=16 (13 male, 3 female), 19.4±2.4 years) from Showa Gakuen school (Tokyo, Japan) ingested 200mg of PS (LIPAMINE-PS, Healthy Navi Co., Ltd., Japan) in form of a cocoa flavored chewable tablet or a matching placebo for two months in a randomized, double-blind, parallel design in accordance with the Basic Principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Main outcome measures included: (i) RAD symptoms based on DSM-IV-TR; (ii) cognitive tests to evaluate memory, attention and concentration: short-term auditory memory (Digit Spin Forward), working memory (Digit Span Backward), attention and working memory (Serial Subtraction Test: Serial Sevens), visual-motor integration skills (Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test), processing speed, mental flexibility and language skills. Subjects were randomized into groups based on their baseline working memory scores. Statistical analysis was performed using STATCEL 2 (Oms-Publishing, Saitama, Japan). A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS PS administration resulted in a statistically significant decrease in RAD symptoms (-65%) and an increases in sort-term auditory memory (+26%), working memory (+30%), calculus performance (+48%), Visual-Motor Integration (+32%), and processing speed (+32%), p<0.01, as well as language skills (+28%, p<0.05), compared to baseline, while the placebo group showed an improvement in processing speed (+24%, p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS PS supplementation can be an important nutritional strategy to improve RAD symptoms and cognition in adolescents.

Relevance of Norms and Psychometric Properties of Three Standardised Visual Perceptual Tests for Children Attending Mainstream Schools in Gauteng

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION: Occupational therapists routinely assess children's visual perceptual and visual-motor integration skills. To determine visual perception and visual-motor integration dysfunction, occupational therapists use standardised visual perceptual assessment instruments. For accurate results, the norms used to evaluate the outcomes of the tests need to reflect the ability of the population on which they are used This study aimed to determine the comparison of scores for a sample of 6 to 9 year old South African children attending schools in middle socio-economic urban areas, to American norms on standardised visual perceptual tests - the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills Third Edition (TVPS-3), the Developmental Test of Visual Perception - Third Edition (DTVP-3) and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor integration - Sixth Edition (Beery VMI-6). METHOD: A cross-sectional, quantitative design was utilised. Forty-eight children aged 6 years 0 months to 9 years 11 months participated in the study. The TVPS-3, DTVP-3 and Beery VMI-6 were administered to each participant as prescribed RESULTS: The scores for the typical children fell within the American norms reported for all three tests. The DTVP-3, TVPS-3 and Beery VMI-6 were found to show little convergence in the scores but exhibited adequate internal consistency for the South African sample CONCLUSION: The scores on the DTVP-3, TVPS-3 and Beery VMI-6 for South African children were similar to the American norms in identifying visual perceptual and VMI dysfunction and are suitable for use with children attending schools in a middle socio-economic urban area Keywords: Visual perception, visual-motor integration, standardised tests, TVPS-3, DTVP-3, Beery VMI-6.

Relevance of Norms and Psychometric Properties of Three Standardised Visual Perceptual Tests for Children Attending Mainstream Schools in Gauteng

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION: Occupational therapists routinely assess children's visual perceptual and visual-motor integration skills. To determine visual perception and visual-motor integration dysfunction, occupational therapists use standardised visual perceptual assessment instruments. For accurate results, the norms used to evaluate the outcomes of the tests need to reflect the ability of the population on which they are used This study aimed to determine the comparison of scores for a sample of 6 to 9 year old South African children attending schools in middle socio-economic urban areas, to American norms on standardised visual perceptual tests - the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills Third Edition (TVPS-3), the Developmental Test of Visual Perception - Third Edition (DTVP-3) and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor integration - Sixth Edition (Beery VMI-6). METHOD: A cross-sectional, quantitative design was utilised. Forty-eight children aged 6 years 0 months to 9 years 11 months participated in the study. The TVPS-3, DTVP-3 and Beery VMI-6 were administered to each participant as prescribed RESULTS: The scores for the typical children fell within the American norms reported for all three tests. The DTVP-3, TVPS-3 and Beery VMI-6 were found to show little convergence in the scores but exhibited adequate internal consistency for the South African sample CONCLUSION: The scores on the DTVP-3, TVPS-3 and Beery VMI-6 for South African children were similar to the American norms in identifying visual perceptual and VMI dysfunction and are suitable for use with children attending schools in a middle socio-economic urban area Keywords: Visual perception, visual-motor integration, standardised tests, TVPS-3, DTVP-3, Beery VMI-6.

The Relationship of Motor Coordination, Visual Perception, and Executive Function to the Development of 4–6-Year-Old Indian Preschoolers’ Visual Motor Integration Skills

The Relationship of Motor Coordination, Visual Perception, and Executive Function to the Development of 4–6-Year-Old Indian Preschoolers’ Visual Motor Integration Skills

Visual motor integration in children with and without reading disability

Where there are few occupational therapists in regular practice, and an educational psychologist and special educators conducted the majority of the assessment procedure and evaluation of children with visual-motor integration (VMI). They consider assessing children with VMI as similar to the assessment of children with research instruments, and the availability of the trained occupational therapist was limited. VMI is generally expressed as the ability of the child to integrate visual perception input and to coordinate it with limb movements for the execution of motor activities in sequential order. A child with impaired VMI skills fails to execute motor- based activity. We evaluated the visual-motor integration (VMI) in children with and without reading disabilities (RDs) in the primary schools of Mudichur. Full Range Test of Visual-Motor Integration (FRTVMI) was used to evaluate the visual-motor integration among children. A total of 20 children recruited from primary schools in Mudichur. Every parent of the children gave the willingness to participate in the study; 10 children were already diagnosed as having RDs, whereas the remaining 10 children were age-matched typically developing children. The results indicated that children with reading disability scored poor on the FRTVMI than the typically developing age-matched peer-group children. The results support the impairment in visual-motor integration is strongly related to learning disabilities, and the therapist should educate teachers of primary schools to refer children with learning disabilities. However, there is a need for strong assessment among children’s to quantify their skills in reading and writing, and it is vital to diagnose children in the early years to avoid academic failures. Teachers were in need to be educated to refer children are who are suspected of being at risk for RDs in school settings.

Relationship between academic achievement, visual-motor integration, gender and socio-economic status: North-West Child Health Integrated with Learning and Development study

Background: Inconsistencies are found regarding the relationship between academic achievement and visual-motor integration (VMI), gender and socio-economic status (SES). Aim: The study examined the associations between academic achievement in different compulsory learning areas and VMI skills, and what role gender and SES play. Setting: A total of 863 participants ( n = 538, low SES group; n = 325, high SES group) from 20 schools in four school districts in the North West province of South Africa were randomly selected to participate. Methods: The Beery Visual-Motor Integration Test, 4th edition (VMI-4) was used to evaluate the VMI, visual perception and motor coordination skills; and the June mid-year school assessment (JMSA) and the Annual National Assessment (ANA) marks were used to examine their academic achievements. Spearman rank-order correlations and stepwise regression analyses were used to, examine significant associations and unique contributors, respectively. Results: Small-to-moderate significant correlations were found between all the learning areas assessed during the JMSA and the ANA examinations and the VMI-4. The strongest correlations occurred between visual perception and most of the learning areas. Socio-economic status had the greatest predictive association with most of the academic learning areas. The largest contributions (≥ 10% moderate, ≥ 25% great) of SES were found during the JMSA in English, life orientation, mathematics, natural science, social sciences and in the grade point averages. During the ANA, SES had the highest predictive contribution to English and mathematics. Conclusion: The overall academic achievement of learners could be negatively affected by their SES and visual perception skills, that suggest timeously prevention strategies to counter these effects.