Visual Encounter Surveys Research Articles

Checklist of herpetofauna in the severely degraded ecosystem of Bidong Island, Peninsular Malaysia, South China Sea.

A herpetofaunal inventory was conducted on Bidong Island, Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia. It incorporates data from a recent herpetological survey conducted from 1 to 3 April 2019 with reptile records from previous publications. Specimens were collected with drift-fenced pitfall traps and taxa were recorded with visual encounter surveys (VES). In total, 18 species of reptiles and amphibians were recorded, including three species of frogs, 12 species of lizards, and three species of snakes. Six species from the present survey are new records for the island.

List of amphibian species (Vertebrata, Tetrapoda) of Burkina Faso

We related the first commented list of the amphibian species of Burkina Faso. To obtain contemporary data, we investigated six sites from July 2017 to September 2018. The survey is unique for West Africa in combining a variety of different habitat types, e.g. Sahelian areas, grassland and woodland savannahs, floodplains, gallery forests and agricultural sites. Animals were found at varying spatial scales by opportunistic visual encounter surveys after sunset supplemented with acoustic searching. Further data were based on museum vouchers collected between the years 1959 and 2011 and deposited in European and American museums, and the literature review focusing on the country species. We listed 36 anuran species from 11 families. Surprisingly seven taxa, namely Arthroleptis poecilonotus Peters, 1863, Afrixalus vittiger (Peters, 1876), Afrixalus weidholzi (Mertens, 1938), Kassina cassinoides (Boulenger, 1903), Ptychadena schillukorum (Werner, 1908), Hyperolius lamottei Laurent, 1958 and Amnirana albolabris (west) (Jongsma et al. 2018), were new country records. A few rare, hard to record or little known species, including Arthroleptis poecilonotus, Hyperolius lamottei, Xenopus tropicalis (Gray, 1864) and Amnirana albolabris (west) can be confirmed. The origin of a specimen of Sclerophrys mauritanica (Schlegel, 1841) mentioned as coming from Burkina Faso deposited in the collections of MNHN must be considered as an error. We briefly discussed the taxonomy and indicated the habitats of all species mentioned in this country so far. The discovery of several new country records highlights that the amphibian fauna of Burkina Faso is still incompletely known and that many poorly explored sites may still harbour a high diversity.

Elevational gradients of reptile richness in the southern Western Ghats of India: Evaluating spatial and bioclimatic drivers

AbstractExploring elevational patterns in species richness and their underlying mechanisms is a major goal in biogeography and community ecology. Reptiles can be powerful model organisms to examine biogeographical patterns. In this study, we examine the elevational patterns of reptile species richness and test a series of hypotheses that may explain them. We sampled reptile communities along a tropical elevational gradient (100–1,500 m a.s.l.) in the Western Ghats of India using time‐constrained visual encounter surveys at each 100‐m elevation zone for 3 years. First, we investigated species richness patterns across elevation and the support of mid‐domain effect and Rapoport's rule. Second, we tested whether a series of bioclimatic (temperature and tree density) and spatial (mid‐domain effect and area) hypotheses explained species richness. We used linear regression and AICc to compare competing models for all reptiles, and each of the subgroups: snakes, lizards, and Western Ghats’ endemics. Overall reptile richness and lizard richness both displayed linear declines with elevation, which was best explained by temperature. Snake richness and endemic species richness did not systematically vary across elevation, and none of the potential hypotheses explained variation in them. This is the first standardized sampling of reptiles along an elevational gradient in the Western Ghats, and our results agree with the global view that temperature is the primary driver of ectotherm species richness. By establishing strong reptile diversity–temperature associations across elevation, our study also has implications for the impact of future climate change on range‐restricted species in the Western Ghats.

HIGHER INFECTION PREVALENCE IN AMPHIBIANS INHABITING HUMAN-MADE COMPARED TO NATURAL WETLANDS.

It is unclear how suitable human-made wetlands are for supporting wildlife and how they impact wildlife disease risk. Natural wetlands (those that were created without human actions) can support more diverse and resilient communities that are at lower risk of disease outbreaks. We compared frog community composition and infection with the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) between human-made and natural wetlands in Tippecanoe County, Indiana, US. We conducted visual encounter surveys of frog communities and quantified Bd infection prevalence at four natural and five human-made wetlands. Water parameters associated with human practices (e.g., pH, salinity) and surrounding land use were also compared across sites. We found higher Bd infection prevalence at human-made sites than at natural sites, with monthly differences showing highest infection in spring and fall, and decreasing infection with increasing water temperature. However, we found no differences between human-made and natural sites regarding amphibian community composition, water quality, or surrounding land use. Further, we found frog density increased with distance to nearest roads among both human-made and natural sites. These findings might suggest that human-made wetlands can support frog communities similar to natural wetlands, but pose a greater risk of Bd infection.

Digenetic trematodes infecting anurans from a derived savanna biotope in Edo State, Nigeria

An investigation of the digenetic trematodes of anurans from Agbede, a location in the derived savanna biotope in Edo state,Nigeria was conducted from August, 2007 to July, 2008. Anuran hosts examined included Sclerophrys maculata, S.regularis, Ptychadena pumilio, P. bibroni, P. oxyrhynchus, Hoplobatrachus occipitalis and Hylarana galamensis. Theanurans were collected using the Visual Acoustic Encounter Survey (VAES) method, dissected and examined for trematodeinfections. A total of 267 anurans were examined of which 33 were infected with an overall prevalence of 12.36%. Seasonalprevalence was 14.88% for the wet season and 8.08% for dry season. The difference in prevalence values was not statisticallysignificant (p >0.05). Four digenetic trematodes, namely, Mesocoelium monodi, an unidentified Mesocoelium sp.,Haematoloechus exoterorchis and an unidentified Haematoloechus sp. Haematoloechus exoterorchis was recovered from H.occipitalis while the unidentified Haematoloechus sp. infected H. occipitalis and Sclerophrys maculata. Mesocoeliummonodi infected only Sclerophrys maculata while the unidentified Mesocoelium sp. was a generalist, infecting five anuranhosts. Sclerophrys maculata is thus a new host record for the genus Haematoloechus in Nigeria. In conclusion, this studyrevealed a low trematode diversity in the anurans of the savanna-mosaic at Agbede. However, anurans from this locationharboured two new trematodes: an unidentified Mesocoelium sp and a Haematolechus sp. Sclerophrys maculata as a newhost record for the genus Haematoloechus in Nigeria. More specimens of the Haematoloechus sp. are needed for themorphological description and molecular characterization of the parasite, to establish its relationship with the cogener inH.occipitalis.
 Keywords: Derived savannah, Anurans, Digenetic trematodes, new host record

Distribution, habitat suitability, conservation state and natural history of endangered salamander Bolitoglossa pandi.

BackgroundPandi’s mushroom-tongue salamander (Bolitoglossa pandi) is one of the threatened amphibians in South America, as well as a flagship species for the Colombian conservation agenda. This species is endemic to the Andean cloud forests of the western slope of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, occurring only in the department of Cundinamarca within a narrow elevational range. At night, B. pandi can be seen perching on the upper side of leaves at heights ranging from ground level to 2.5 m. During the day, it can be found under leaf litter or cover objects. Few studies have provided relevant information that can help the Colombian government to formulate lines of action for the conservation of this species; consequently, its threat assessments so far have been based on very limited information.MethodsWe conducted surveys for salamanders in four municipalities of Cundinamarca, Colombia, using two approaches: visual encounter surveys (Guaduas and Villeta) and the basic sampling protocol for single-species occupancy modeling (Supatá and Venecia). Multivariate analyses were employed to explore the correlation between habitat structure and natural history traits, abundance, and detection/non-detection of B. pandi. We evaluated the B. pandi activity pattern through kernel density curves for each sampling occasion and explored the variability of salamander abundance during their activity period by performing a nested ANOVA.ResultsWe report the discovery of two new populations of B. pandi, which represent the most northwestern records known. A significant correlation between body length, body mass, and habitat structure was observed. Multivariate analyses indicated that leaf litter depth, mean temperature, percent vegetation cover, and altitude were the habitat variables that together explained 60.3% of the B. pandi abundance variability, as well as the main determinants of its optimal habitat. Bolitoglossa pandi exhibits an activity pattern characterized by two main activity peaks, in which niche time-partitioning was observed. Across the surveyed area, we found a healthy, stable, highly dense population of B. pandi (>1,300 individuals), with seasonal variability between development stages.DiscussionGiven the high habitat specificity of B. pandi, the species is highly vulnerable to local changes. Thus, we recommend that B. pandi be retained as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List, based on the IUCN Criterion B, given its restricted extent of occurrence (ca. 2,500 km2) and the ongoing threats from agriculture, cattle ranching, logging, and urban development, which continue to reduce its suitable habitat.

Short Communication: Herpetofauna diversity at the University of Palangka Raya, Indonesia

Abstract. Maulidi A, Purnaningsih T, Maulina A, Gunawan YE, Rizki M. 2020. Short Communication: Herpetofauna diversity at University of Palangka Raya, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 4509-4514. Research on herpetofauna at the University of Palangka Raya (UPR) is vital as there has been no official data so far and remains to be anecdotal evidence from various members of the university. The present study aimed to analyze and report the herpetofauna diversity on the Tunjung Nyaho Campus. It was conducted between October 2019 and November 2019. Herpetofauna data were collected using the Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method. Diurnal and nocturnal surveys were carried out between 07:00-10:00 and 19:00-22:00, respectively. The results showed that as many as 12 species of herpetofauna were present, including six species of reptiles from six families and six species of amphibians from four families. Comparative diversity analyses of these species, unburned, post-burnt, and around building, indicated that the unburned area had a relatively high diversity (2.06) compared to the other two (0.86 and 0.88, respectively). However, the evenness index (E) for the herpetofauna community in all three locations was > 0.70. The resulting species list from this study consisted of two species with threatened statuses under the IUCN Red List, i.e., Ophiophagus hannah (VU), and Cuora amboinensis (EN).

Herpetofaunal diversity and community structure in the Murchison Falls - Albert Delta Ramsar site, Uganda

1. The area of the Murchison Falls-Albert Delta is among the most important for conservation in East Africa dueto the high species richness, and the presence of several endemic species of conservation concern.2. Here, we report a study on the diversity patterns and community structure of the herpetofauna of this area.3. Field studies were conducted in the Albert Nile Delta Ramsar site between 1st October 2017 and 9th September2018. The data collection relied on Visual Encounter Surveys (VES), pitfall trapping, and dip netting. Descriptive statistics, i.e. species numbers in each transect were used as a measure of the present biodiversity, whereasChao1 and Chao species estimator algorithms were used to predict the potential number of species found ineach site/habitat.4. A total of 898 individuals representing 25 reptile species belonging to four orders, 15 families, and 20 generawere recorded during the 12 months of surveys.5. The data shows some non-random spatial and temporal patterns whereby there is a cyclic reptilian diversitypeaking during the December-March and again towards June-August-September which are peaks of the dryseason.6. The most frequently encountered species were Varanus niloticus, Crocodylus niloticus, Agama agama, Trachylepis maculilabris, and Lygodactylus guttularis, which accounted for almost 90% of all recorded individuals.7. A total of 27 amphibian species, belonging to nine families and 10 genera were recorded during the periodof the survey. The diversity and abundance graphs would indicate amphibians having bimodal peaks (September-December, and March-May). The diversity seemed to dip during the dry season months – which is theopposite case for reptiles.

Herpetofauna Distribution and Ecology in East Kutai District, East Kutai, East Kalimantan

Herpetofauna consisting of reptiles and amphibians is a group of fauna whose biodiversity potential is rarely known and is not well known by the public. The purpose of this study was to determine the distribution, ecology and diversity of herpetofauna in Mesangat Wetlands. The method used in this research is the Visual Encounter Survey (VES) search method by searching directly for the type of herpetofauna around the predetermined pathway. Field orientation is carried out to determine the location of the observation, the location of the observation is divided into 3 locations (Mesangat Hilir, Tengah and Hulu) in one observation location there are 5 stations (lanes) for herpetofauna observation. Observations were made in the morning starting at 09.00 - 12.00 WITA and at night starting at 20.00 - 23.00 WITA. Recorded data related to the number of individuals, activities, time found, environmental parameters and measured SVL if possible. Identified species were found using the identification key book Field Frogs of Borneo Inger and Stuebing (2014) and A Field Guide to the Snakes of Borneo Stuebing, Inger and Lardner (2014). The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2010. The results showed that the distribution of herpetofauna in Mesangat Wetlands was fairly evenly distributed and the ecology of Mesangat Wetlands supported for herpetofauna life and the diversity index value obtained was 1.53 which was classified as medium category.

A 28-years-long monitoring study suggests heavy decline and habitat shifts in three populations of a Mediterranean tortoise species

Abstract Long-term ecological studies are important for understanding wild populations’ dynamics and processes and the actual factors that can determine their decline. Here, we report the results of a 28-years-long (1992–2019) monitoring of three distinct populations of a tortoise, Testudo hermanni, in Central Italy, with an emphasis on their population abundance trends and on the eventual variation in their habitat use across years and among the study areas. Samplings were conducted by Visual Encounter Survey (VES) methodology, and using a suite of statistical analyses including correlations and Generalized Linear Models analyses. Our data showed a statistically significant decline in tortoise sightings through time, and concurrently also a variation in habitat use by tortoises. In all the three study areas, we observed a significant increase of tortoise sighting frequency in the habitat type characterized by high (>taller than 200 cm) shrubby and wooded vegetation. Since our analyses revealed no significant change in the habitat type availability by year in each study area, we suggest that T. hermanni was increasingly selecting closed vegetation spots throughout the years. We hypothesize that this observed trend of shift in habitat selection could be due to lowering their body temperatures to prevent overheating. So, the selection of more covered spots would be a thermal ecology adaptive consequence of the ongoing global warming.

A 28-years-long monitoring study suggests heavy decline and habitat shifts in three populations of a Mediterranean tortoise species

Long-term ecological studies are important for understanding wild populations’ dynamics and processes and the actual factors that can determine their decline. Here, we report the results of a 28-years-long (1992–2019) monitoring of three distinct populations of a tortoise, Testudo hermanni, in Central Italy, with an emphasis on their population abundance trends and on the eventual variation in their habitat use across years and among the study areas. Samplings were conducted by Visual Encounter Survey (VES) methodology, and using a suite of statistical analyses including correlations and Generalized Linear Models analyses. Our data showed a statistically significant decline in tortoise sightings through time, and concurrently also a variation in habitat use by tortoises. In all the three study areas, we observed a significant increase of tortoise sighting frequency in the habitat type characterized by high (>taller than 200 cm) shrubby and wooded vegetation. Since our analyses revealed no significant change in the habitat type availability by year in each study area, we suggest that T. hermanni was increasingly selecting closed vegetation spots throughout the years. We hypothesize that this observed trend of shift in habitat selection could be due to lowering their body temperatures to prevent overheating. So, the selection of more covered spots would be a thermal ecology adaptive consequence of the ongoing global warming.

Amphibians and Reptiles Survey at Tasik Pergau, Jeli, Kelantan and Its Updated Checklist

A surveyof amphibians and reptiles at Tasik Pergau, Kelantan was conducted from 30 until 31 October 2019 and 22 until 23 November 2019. Four sampling locations were surveyed, namely Long 1 & 2, Suda, Renyok, and Terang intake. The study was conducted using the Visual Encounter Survey method, an active sampling technique that is efficient for short observations. A total of 164 individuals were recorded which comprised of sixamphibian families and six reptiles families. The amphibian families recorded are Bufonidae, Dicroglossidae, Megophryidae, Microhylidae, Ranidae and Rhacophoridae. A total of 19 amphibian species of and eight reptile species were recorded during the sampling period. In addition, this study has recorded about 12 new records of amphibians and reptiles in Pergau area. These species are Limnonectes dionodon, L. malesianus, L. plicatellus, Megophrys nasuta, Hylarana erythraea, H. signata, Polypedates discantus, Calotes emma, Cyrtodactylus pulchellus, Eutropis macularia, Ahaetulla prasina and Xenochrophis trianguligerus,adding up to the total number of amphibians and reptiles to 42 species. Further studies need to be conducted intensive and extensively to obtain more information regarding amphibians and reptiles in Pergau area.

Variation of body temperature of active amphibians along elevation gradients in eastern Nepal Himalaya.

Understanding the thermal ecology of active amphibians, as well as its relationship with habitat and environmental features, is a central theme in ecology. However, this topic has been poorly studied in eastern Himalaya, which is a global biodiversity hotspot. To bridge this gap, we investigated how the body temperatures of active amphibians varied along an elevation gradient in the Arun and Tamor River catchments in eastern Nepal Himalaya in the present study. Amphibian assemblages were sampled from May to July in both 2014 and 2015 using nocturnal time-constrained visual encounter surveys, and the body temperature of each individual was directly measured using a digital infrared thermometer in the field. A combination of linear regression and hierarchical partitioning analyses was used to determine the effects of elevation and environmental variables on the body temperatures of active amphibians. In total, the body temperatures of 599 amphibian individuals belonging to 28 species from six families were recorded. Our results indicated that amphibian body temperature exhibited monotonically declining trends with increasing elevations in eastern Nepal Himalaya. Interestingly, this tread was much more pronounced in subtropical (lowland) areas than in warm and cool temperate regions. Inter- and intraspecies variations in body temperature were large, which can be attributed to distinct habitat utilization among species and the change in vegetation cover in different bioclimatic zones. Among all environmental variables, substrate temperature and water temperature were the best predictors of the amphibian body temperature. Overall, this study revealed amphibian body temperature patterns along an elevation gradient in eastern Nepal Himalaya, which were principally driven by temperature-related environmental factors. We believe our results can provide important information on amphibian physiological traits, which may help ecologists predict their responses to future climate change and formulate protection strategies.

Soil moisture & roads influence the occurrence of frogs in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Urbanization and linear infrastructure are reported to influence amphibian assemblages and populations. In areas undergoing rapid infrastructure development and urbanization, the mounting threats to biodiversity are evident. Although protected area coverage and focus on charismatic species conservation are well recognized, non-charismatic species such as amphibians are far from mainstream conservation actions and policies in Nepal. Studies on pattern and distribution of amphibians are limited, as are the roles of environmental variables in amphibian diversity in the urban landscape. This study was designed to assess the frog species richness and correlates of amphibian occurrence in Kathmandu valley. Visual encounter survey of 161 belt transects was carried out in August 2018. Data analysis used two part or Hurdle regression methods where the richness of frogs was considered a response variable. A total of 10 frog species belonging to six families were recorded. The occurrence of frogs was negatively associated with the dry soil conditions and positively associated with increased distance from roads. Occurrence of frogs along road distance gradient depicts the influence of urban infrastructure in amphibian distribution. This entails consideration of systematic conservation planning for rapidly urbanizing areas.

Distribution of amphibians along an elevation gradient in the Eastern Himalaya, india

Distribution of biodiversity along the elevation gradient have been a subject of curiosity and a much argued topic in macroecology. Despite considerable attention, there is a lack of consensus on the pattern and the causal factors across regions and taxa. We studied amphibian distribution along the elevational gradient in Sikkim, Eastern Himalaya, part of a globally significant biodiversity hotspot. We conducted intensive field studies covering 300–4600 m elevation using Visual Encounter Survey and Night Stream Survey methods. We examined the effects of both spatial factors (area and mid-domain effect) and environmental variables (temperature, precipitation, moisture, potential evapotranspiration and actual evapotranspiration) on the distribution of amphibians along the elevational gradient. We recorded 25 species and 1368 individuals of amphibians after 1236 man-hours of visual encounter survey and 27 km night stream survey. Species richness of total amphibians and their sub groups (endemic, non-endemic, large-range and small-range) followed unimodal pattern showing a peak at middle elevation but with slight shift towards higher elevation for endemic species. Various environmental variables, especially actual evapotranspiration and mean annual precipitation, explained the elevational distribution trend of amphibians in the Eastern Himalaya. Spatial factors played no significant role in shaping the pattern of amphibian distribution (except endemics and large-range species showing fit to mid-domain effect). Local communities of the study area extract amphibians for food and medicine, especially from the diverse mid elevation zone, which should be closely monitored and curbed by the wildlife authorities.

Cannibalism in smooth snakes, Coronella austriaca

Cannibalism is a widespread behavioural trait in nature and snakes are no exception. In smooth snakes (Coronella austriaca) it has only been visibly observed in captive individuals or known from faecal/stomach content analyses. Between 2009 and 2018 one incidence of cannibalism, determined from a faecal sample, and one sighting, were recorded in wild smooth snakes in Wareham Forest plantations, UK. Analysis of faecal samples and visual encounter surveys were used to estimate its frequency. Both records occurred in early autumn and our results suggest that its incidence in wild smooth snakes in southern England is low (0.1-0.3 %) and may be the result of low body condition. The circumstances resulting in cannibalism in the smooth snake may also be relevant to other animal species where cannibalism has been reported.

Population status of Centrolene savagei (Anura: Centrolenidae) in the Western and Central Andes of Colombia

to determine the population status of Centrolene savagei (Centrolenidae) in the Western and Central Andes of Colombia. Scope: promotion of the population study of the endemic glassfrogs species of Colombia. Methodology: C. savagei (Centrolenidae) has only been registered in the Central and Western Andes of Colombia. We conducted a visual encounter survey in eight different localities where C. savagei was previously reported: Alto Bonito, Florencia, La Pastora, Santa Rosa de Cabal, Filandia, Boquía, Alto el Otoño and Chicoral, with an effective sampling effort of 54 h per locality. Each captured individual was marked, sexed and the height above water level of the perch was registered. Furthermore, all detected clutches in each survey were also marked and height above water level was recorded. We use a standard capture-recapture model to estimate the size of the population in each study site assuming closed population conditions. Main Results: C. savagei was absent at La Pastora and Florencia. In all localities where C. savagei was registered, male individuals and clutches were usually found between 1.5-2.0 m, while female individuals remain most of the time above 6 m height, and only go down for reproduction. The population size of C. savagei in the study area of Alto del Otoño was 132 ± 13 ind, in Chicoral was 41 ± 8 ind and in Santa Rosa de Cabal was 37 ± 6 ind. In Filandia, Boquia and Alto Bonito, recaptures were not carried out, so the size of the population could not be estimated. Conclusions: The presence of C. savagei in 75% of the localities where it had previously been reported suggests that the biotic and abiotic conditions in these sites are still adequate to sustain populations of this endemic species.

Trematodes of the Genus Mesocoelium, Parasites of Anurans in the Ganzourgou Province, Burkina Faso

The Trematodes of the genus Mesocoelium parasites of Anurans from Mogtedo, Zam, and Zorgho, in the area of Ganzourgou in Burkina Faso have been investigated between August, 2018 and January 2019. A total of 233 Anurans belonging to 5 families, 5 genera, and 9 species were examined. The species of Anurans examined were: Hoplobatrachus occipitalis, Amnirana galamensis, Ptychadena bibroni, Ptychadena pumilio, Sclerophrys pentoni, Sclerophrys maculata, Sclerophrys regularis, Sclerophrys xeros, and Xenopus fischbergi. The Anurans were collected by hand using the Visual Acoustic Encounter Survey (VAES) method. Amphibians were euthanized and dissected to examine the digestive tract and their appendices for Trematodes of the genus Mesocoelium. Atotal of9 species of the genus Mesocoelium were recovered, with an overall prevalence of 11.16%. The Trematodes that have been recovered were: Mesocoelium monas, Mesocoelium brieni, Mesocoelium sociale, Mesocoelium microon, Mesocoelium incognitum, Mesocoelium danforthi, Mesocoelium americanum, Mesocoelium monody, and Mesocoelium megaloon. The means intensity of infestation was generally low except for Mesocoelium incognitum (100.5 parasites / infested host). That infestation was influenced by the selectivity of the host by the Trematodes. It appears that in the 9 species of Anurans examined, only 3 species were infested by parasitic Trematodes (Hoplobatrachus occipitalis, Sclerophrys maculata and Sclerophrys regularis). The preferred organ of the genus Mesocoelium infestations in the host was the small intestine. Histopathologic studies in infested organs will be carried out to show the impacts of the Trematodes of the genus Mesocoelium in their hosts.

Helminth parasitic infections of leaf litter frogs (<i>Arthroleptis</i> and <i>Phrynobatrachus spp.</i>) from cocoa plantations in southern Nigeria

The endohelminths parasitizing leaf litter frogs (LLFs) at Ojo Camp, Ugboke, Ovia South West Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria were investigated. The frogs were collected from cocoa plantations (CPs) exposed to pesticides and from the village settlement (VS) located outside the pesticide use environment, for 15 months, using the Visual Acoustic Encounter Surveys method and disturbance searches. Two genera of LLFs were encountered: Arthroleptis (A. poecilonotus, A. variabilis, and six other undetermined Arthroleptis spp.) and Phrynobatrachus (P. auritus, P. plicatus, P. natalensis and Phrynobatrachus sp.). The overall prevalence of infection in LLFs from the CPs and VS were 37.4% and 50.0%, respectively but thedifference was not significant (p>0.05). The most parasitized LLF in the CPs was the unidentified Phrynobatrachus sp. (64.7%); in the VS infections were only recorded in A. poecilonotus (50%, n=4) and the single specimens of Arthroleptis sp. 2 collected from this habitat. The helminth parasites recovered included four cestodes (two adults: Cylindrotaenia jaegerskioeldi and Ophiotaenia sp.) and two larvae (two unidentified Proteocephalus spp.), three digenetic trematodes (two unidentified Mesocoelium spp. and a strigeoid larva) and eight nematode species (Amplicaecum sp., Aplectana sp., Cosmocerca ornata, Cosmocerca sp., Foleyellides sp., Physaloptera sp., Rhabdias sp. and an Ascaridida sp.). Although the cocoa plantations had very high species richness and diversity of parasites (15 parasite species), the intensity of infection was low. This generally low infection intensity reflects the inhibitory effects of the pesticide-contaminated environment of the CPs on parasite larval development and transmission.
 Keywords: Leaf litter frogs; helminth parasites; prevalence; intensity; cocoa plantations; pesticides.

Amphibians Diversity in Sulap Hill and Watervang Dam, Lubuklinggau

Sulap Hill and Watervang Dam are located in the central of the city of Lubuklinggau, South Sumatra Province, which has a variety of organisms, including amphibians. This study aimed to determine the diversity of amphibian species in the area of Sulap Hill and Watervang Dam Lubuklinggau City. This research was conducted from June to August 2018. Data collection was an exploration method-combined visual encounter survey (VES). The samples obtained were identified at the Biology Education Laboratory, STKIP PGRI Lubuklinggau. Data analysis included species composition, diversity index, and Evenness index, and conservation status. The results of the study found 5 families, consist of 11 species: Duttaphyrnus melanotictus, Ingerophrynus divergens, Phrynoidis asper, Fejervarya cancrivora, Fejervarya limnocharis, Limnonectes kuhlii, Limnonectes macrodon, Limnonectes paramacrodon, Polypedates leucomystax, Hylarana erythraea, Ichthyophis sumatranus. The results of the data analysis showed that the amphibian diversity index in the Sulap hill (1.55) and Watervang dam (1.84) was categorized as low. The Evenness index in Sulap Hill (0.86) and Watervang Dam (0.88) was categorized as a high uniformity and stable community. Based on data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List, 8 species have the status of Least Concern, 1 species with Vulnerable status, 1 species with Near-threatened status and 1 species with data deficient status.