Virus Removal Research Articles

Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Hepatitis A Virus in the Wastewater Treatment Plant of Ekbatan Town in Tehran, Iran

Background: Limited sources of fresh water necessitate the application of health policies for treatment and decontamination of human sewage for further use. A wide variety of infectious agents, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, can be found in sewage. Enteric viruses such as hepatitis A virus (HAV) can survive the current treatments and infect susceptible hosts. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate HAV contamination in human sewage before and after treatment in the wastewater treatment plant of Ekbatan town in Tehran, Iran, and analyze the phylogenetic properties of the identified viruses. Methods: Over a 12-month period, we collected the wastewater samples including influent, before chlorination, and effluent, from the wastewater treatment plant of Ekbatan town in Tehran, Iran. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) extraction, complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) synthesis, and semi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed to identify HAV contamination. Phylogenetic analysis was performed to investigate subgenotypes of the virus. Results: HAV was detected in all influents and samples before chlorination, while the virus was detected in 50% of the effluent samples. All detected viruses belonged to subgenotype IB. Conclusions: Investigating the presence of HAV in sewage provides a general picture of the virus spread in the population of interest. HAV was detected in all influent samples, indicating that the infection is endemic in this area all year round. This also indicates the inability of the current treatment protocols in virus removal, which can be a threat to the public health.

Boronic Acid-Modified Bacterial Cellulose Microspheres as Packing Materials for Enveloped Virus Removal

Boronic Acid-Modified Bacterial Cellulose Microspheres as Packing Materials for Enveloped Virus Removal

The Mathematical Modeling Approach for the Wastewater Treatment Process in Saudi Arabia during COVID‐19 Pandemic

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) pandemic has had devastating effects on healthcare systems and the global economy. Moreover, coronavirus has been found in human feces, sewage, and in wastewater treatment plants. In this paper, we highlight the transmission behavior, occurrence, and persistence of the virus in sewage and wastewater treatment plants. Our approach follows the process of identifying a coronavirus hotspot through existing wastewater plants in major cities of Saudi Arabia. The mathematical distributions, including the log‐normal distribution, Gaussian model, and susceptible‐exposed‐infected‐recovered (SEIR) model, are adopted to predict the coronavirus load in wastewater plants. We highlight not only the potential virus removal techniques from wastewater treatment plants but also methods of tracing SARS‐CoV‐2 in humans through wastewater treatment plants. The results indicate that our modeling approach may facilitate the analysis of SARS‐CoV‐2 loads in wastewater for early prediction of the epidemic outbreak and provide significant implications to the public health system.

Analysis of Virus Sanitization Alternatives and Optimization of a Thermal Air Purifier for SARS-CoV-2

Air sanitization acquired renewed interest during the COVID-19 outbreak, especially in hospital rooms and intensive care units. In this work, mathematical analysis was done of the convenience of sanitizing the air of whole rooms or personalized isolation tents. Centralized air sanitization was found to have low effectiveness due to three reasons: 1) the constant virus emission from patients; 2) the practical upper limits of air recycle flowrates; 3) the low value of the minimum infective dose of SARS-CoV-2. Personalized air sanitization was the best option. Virus inactivation by thermal effect was then revisited, and a steady-state model was formulated for an efficient and personalized thermal sterilizer. An analytical solution was obtained for temperature and virus concentration in different parts of the sterilizer. Cell temperature was found to be the main variable for sterilization due to the Arrhenius-like form of the kinetic constant of virus deactivation. An objective cost function was written and subjected to conditions of minimum patient ventilation rate and minimum virus removal effectiveness. Numerical optimization gave an optimal design with the intrinsic advantages of thermal sanitization, i.e., simplicity, robustness, minimum maintenance and high sanitization rate.

Epidemiological significance of the occurrence and persistence of rotaviruses in water and sewage: a critical review and proposal for routine microbiological monitoring.

Globally, waterborne gastroenteritis attributable to rotaviruses is on the increase due to the rapid increase in population growth, poor socioeconomic conditions, and drastic changes in climatic conditions. The burden of diarrhea is quite alarming in developing nations where the majority of the populations still rely on untreated surface water that is usually polluted for their immediate water needs. Humans and animals of all ages are affected by rotaviruses. In humans, the preponderance of cases occurs in children under 5 years. Global efforts in advancing water/wastewater treatment technologies have not yet realized the objective of complete viral removal from wastewater. Most times, surface waters are impacted heavily by inadequately treated wastewater run-offs thereby exposing people or animals to preventable health risks. The relative stability of rotaviruses in aquatic matrices during wastewater treatment, poor correlation of bacteriological indicators with the presence of rotaviruses, and their infectiousness at a low dose informed the proposal for inclusion in the routine microbiological water screening panel. Environmental monitoring data have been shown to provide early warnings that can complement clinical data used to monitor the impact of current rotavirus vaccination in a community. This review was therefore undertaken to critically appraise rotavirus excretion and emission pathways, and the existence, viability and persistence in the receiving aquatic milieu. The efficiency of the current wastewater treatment modality for rotavirus removal, correlation of the current bacteriological water quality assessment strategy, public health risks and current laboratory methods for an epidemiological study were also discussed.

Proceedings of the 2019 Viral Clearance Symposium, Session 6: Virus-Retentive Filtration.

Manufactures of therapeutic biological products are required to incorporate downstream unit operations that can inactivate or remove potential viral contaminants from the manufacturing process. The viral filtration unit operation is one of the most robust virus removal steps incorporated into downstream manufacturing processes. The primary virus removal mechanism is size exclusion by a network of nanopores in the viral filter membrane. Even though the mechanism of virus removal is size based, there are many operational parameters that can affect virus retention. This article summarizes the current understanding of the operation and validation parameters of this unit operation.

Proceedings of the 2019 Viral Clearance Symposium, Session 2: New Modalities in Chromatography and Adsorptive Filters.

In Session 2 of the 2019 Viral Clearance Symposium, new outcomes of viral clearance performance of polishing chromatography and depth filters utilized in the purification processes of biotechnologically produced recombinant proteins such as monoclonal antibodies were presented. It was shown that flow through both multimodal anion-exchange and anion-exchange chromatography are effective tools for removal of retroviruses and, under defined conditions, also for parvoviruses. Cation-exchange chromatography, when operated in bind/elute mode, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, and depth filtration can also be potent for virus removal, but are less robust for parvoviruses. Despite these data provide further understanding of virus removal mechanisms by chromatography and depth filtration operations, more investigation is required for a clear understanding of the molecular mechanisms of virus removal and the relevance of different moleculés interactions including resin, virus, and product.

New low-cost biofilters for SARS-CoV-2 using Hymenachne grumosa as a precursor

The ongoing global spread of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2 2019 disease) is causing an unprecedented repercussion on human health and the economy. Despite the primary mode of transmission being through air droplets and contact, the transmission via wastewater is a critical concern. There is a lack of techniques able to provide complete disinfection, along with the uncertainty related to the behavior of SARS-CoV-2 in the natural environment and risks of contamination. This fact makes urgent the research towards new alternatives for virus removal from water and wastewater. Thus, this research aimed to characterize new lost-cost adsorbents for SARS-CoV-2 using Hymenachne grumosa as a precursor and verify its potential for removing SARS-CoV-2 from the solution. The aquatic macrophyte H. grumosa had in natura and activated carbon produced with H. grumosa and zinc chloride (ZnCl2,1:1) impregnation and carbonization (700 °C, 1 h) were incubated for 24 h with inactivated SARS-CoV-2 viral suspension, and then the ribonucleic acid (RNA) was extracted and viral load quantified through reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) technique. The results demonstrated the great adsorption potential, achieving removal of 98.44% by H. grumosa “in natura”, and 99.61% by H. grumosa with carbon activation, being similar to commercial activated carbon (99.67%). Thus, this study highlights the possibility of low-cost biofilters to be used for SARS-CoV-2 removal, as an excellent alternative for wastewater treatment or watercourses decontamination.

Hemophilia: The Past, the Present, and the Future.

Hemophilia: The Past, the Present, and the Future.

Viral pathogens in urban stormwater runoff: Occurrence and removal via vegetated biochar-amended biofilters

Urban runoff is one of the greatest sources of microbial pollution to surface waters. Biofilters can limit the impact of stormwater runoff on surface water quality by diverting runoff from receiving waters. However, our understanding of how biofilter design choices, including the addition of vegetation and geomedia, may impact the removal of pathogens is lacking. In this study, we characterized viruses (adenovirus, enterovirus, norovirus GII, crAssphage) in San Francisco Bay area urban runoff and assessed the removal of lab-cultured viruses (MS2, adenovirus 2, coxsackievirus B5) from biochar-amended biofilter mesocosms during challenge testing. We quantified viruses using (RT-)qPCR and F+ coliphage plaque assays. We found that all the pathogenic viruses targeted were found at low concentrations (adenovirus: all positive samples were <limit of quantification, enterovirus: <limit of quantification-1.9 × 102 gc/L, norovirus GII: <limit of quantification-1.2 × 102 gc/L) in San Francisco Bay area urban runoff and the presence of norovirus GII in runoff was associated with developed land use and decreased precipitation. Biofilters had variable success in removing adenovirus, enterovirus, and MS2 from runoff in laboratory-scale column experiments. In addition, there was no significant difference in the removal of each virus in vegetated versus non-vegetated biofilters, with the exception of MS2 which had slightly higher removal in vegetated biofilters (0.40 log10 units, Welch's t-test, p = 0.004). When comparing removal of human viruses and viral indicators, adenovirus and enterovirus were removed more efficiently (log10-removal adenovirus = 3.2; log10-removal enterovirus = 1.1) than indicator virus MS2 (log10-removal by RT-qPCR = 0.36, log10-removal by plaque assay = 0.36). These results provide evidence that MS2 may be a conservative indicator for human virus removal in biofiltration systems, but more work is needed to examine this relationship. Results from this study can help inform design choices regarding biofilters intended to improve water quality and our understanding of virus attenuation in biofiltration systems.

Absolute and Fast Removal of Viruses and Bacteria from Water by Spraying-Assembled Carbon-Nanotube Membranes.

Membrane separation is able to efficiently remove pathogens like bacteria and viruses from water based on size exclusion. However, absolute and fast removal of pathogens requires highly permeable but selective membranes. Herein, we report the preparation of such advanced membranes using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as one-dimensional building blocks. We first disperse CNTs with the help of an amphiphilic block copolymer, poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate)-block-polystyrene (PDMAEMA-b-PS, abbreviated as BCP). The PS blocks adsorb on the surface of CNTs via the π-π interaction, while the PDMAEMA blocks are solvated, thus forming homogeneous and stable CNT dispersions. We then spray the CNT dispersions on porous substrates, producing composite membranes with assembled CNT layers as the selective layers. We demonstrate that the optimized membrane shows 100% rejection to phage viruses and bacteria (Escherichia coli) while giving a water permeance up to ∼3300 L m-2 h-1 bar-1. The performance of the resultant BCP/CNT membrane outperforms that of state-of-the-art membranes and commercial membranes. The BCP/CNT membrane can be used for multiple runs and regenerated by water rinsing. Membrane modules assembled from large-area membrane sheets sustain the capability of absolute and fast removal of viruses and bacteria.

Root cause analysis for membrane system validation failure at a full-scale recycled water treatment plant

Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes can be used as a standalone process for the removal of enteric virus and are often combined with reverse osmosis (RO) processes for use as the pre-treatment to manage microbial risks. In this study, a water utility experienced multiple validation failures in one of its UF plants with virus log reduction values (LRV) as low as 0.79 reported. This resulted in the suspension of recycled water supply to customers and initiated a comprehensive root cause analysis to identify the reason for the unusually rapid membrane degradation and virus removal validation failure. Polyethersulfone (PES) membrane fibres were sampled from the used modules and a systematic autopsy was undertaken. The FTIR spectroscopic structural analysis revealed oxidative changes in the PES polymer structure. Thermal analysis by differential scanning calorimetry showed changes in the melting point of the PES and suggested a loss of the pore-forming polymer polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Streaming potential analysis showed a decrease in the negativity of the surface charge from −50 mV to −30 mV at pH 7. Tensile testing revealed a 9% and 47% decrease in the breaking force and elongation at break of the used fibres respectively. The pore size evaluation challenge testing of the used fibres showed no rejection of nanoparticles with 150 nm diameter and smaller. The autopsy investigation suggested that the unusually rapid membrane degradation was due to chemical oxidation resulting in changes in the PES structure and physical properties. Detailed on-site investigation was then undertaken and it was suggested that the failure to operate appropriate chemical enhance backwash (CEB) was the main cause for the unusually rapid virus LRV reduction. Finally, CEB water sampling and analysis were undertaken, which confirmed the recommendations from membrane autopsy and site investigation. A range of system improvements (system control, new inline static mixer, CEB water quality monitoring, etc.) were implemented. Based on the root cause analysis and system improvements, the maximum virus LRV of 4 has been maintained since then.

Development and Characterization of Hyperimmune Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Intravenous Immunoglobulin From COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma

Background: Polyclonal immunoglobulin G (IgG) medications have successfully treated different bacterial and viral infections for several decades. Herein, we describe the development process of hyperimmune anti-Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) intravenous immunoglobulin (COVID-globulin) from anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) neutralizing antibody (nAb)-containing plasma. Furthermore, we investigate the safety and protective activity of the COVID-globulin in animal models.Methods: COVID-19 convalescent plasma samples collected from Russian blood service organizations with known anti-SARS-CoV-2 nAb titers were used for COVID-globulin production. The manufacturing process included standard ethanol fractionation, chromatographic purification steps, and virus removal or inactivation. Immunoglobulin batches were characterized based on Russian and EU Pharmacopeia guidelines, with the anti-SARS-CoV-2 nAb titers determined using a virus neutralization test (performed in Vero E6 cells) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). COVID-globulin safety was assessed by evaluating its toxicity and thrombogenic potential. COVID-globulin protective efficacy was evaluated in immunosuppressed Syrian hamsters via the intraperitoneal administration of COVID-globulin or a placebo Changes in animal body weight and health status were observed daily. Lungs were subjected to macroscopic, histological, and virological studies. The lung virus load was determined using titration of 10% lung tissue homogenate in Vero E6 cells, and the cytopathic effect was visually evaluated.Findings: We produced pure and safe immunoglobulin for intravenous administration, with 98·1±6·5 mg/mL protein content.. The concentration factor of SARS-CoV-2 nAbs in ten COVID-globulin lots was 9·4±1·4 times. Safety studies in animals showed no signs of acute/chronic toxicity or allergenic or thrombogenic properties. COVID-globulin demonstrated protective effects against SARS-CoV-2 in immunosuppressed hamsters. The survival rate in the COVID-globulin groups was 66·6–100% compared with total mortality in the control groups.Interpretation: COVID-globulin, manufactured in accordance with the Ph. Eur. requirements, protected immunosuppressed hamsters against SARS-Cov-2.Funding Information: This work was sponsored and performed by JSC Nacimbio.Declaration of Interests: We declare no competing interests.Ethics Approval Statement: Studies were performed at The National Research Center for epidemiology and Microbiology named after Honorary Academician N.F. Gamaleya of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, after receiving bioethical approval №26 from 08.10.2020 and №28 from 16.11.2020.

Electrospun antibacterial and antiviral poly(ε-caprolactone)/zein/Ag bead-on-string membranes and its application in air filtration

In this study, poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/zein/Ag nanoparticle (AgNP) fibrous membranes were prepared by ultrasonication-assisted electrospinning. The effects of the AgNP content and ultrasonication time on the membrane morphology, chemical structure, biodegradability, mechanical properties, antibacterial/antiviral activity, and air filtration performance were studied. The best-performing membrane (AgNP content = 1% (w/v), sonication time = 30 min) exhibited a bead-on-string morphology, an air permeability of 93.6 ± 1.5 mm s−1, and the Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus removal efficiencies of 98.1 ± 1.2% and 97.4 ± 2.5%, respectively. In an experiment with E. coli phage, the above-mentioned membrane exhibited a 97.1 ± 2.1% virus removal efficiency after 60 min. The high performance of this bead-on-string membrane for air filtration was ascribed to the low packing density due to the presence of open interconnected beaded airflow channels and small beads.

Removal of COVID-19 Spike Protein, Whole Virus, Exosomes, and Exosomal MicroRNAs by the Hemopurifier® Lectin-Affinity Cartridge in Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 Infection.

Coronavirus−19 (COVID-19) has rapidly spread throughout the world resulting in a significant amount of morbidity and mortality. Despite advances in therapy, social distancing, masks, and vaccination many places in the world continue to see an increase in the number of cases and deaths. Viremia is commonly present in severely ill patients with COVID-19 infections and is associated with organ dysfunction and poor outcomes. Exosomes released by activated cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 infection. We report the experience of two cases of critically ill COVID-19 patients treated with the Hemopurifier; a lectin affinity cartridge designed to remove mannosylated viruses and exosomes. Both patients tolerated the Hemopurifier sessions without adverse effects. In the first patient removal of exosomes and exosomal microRNAs was associated with improved coagulopathy, oxygenation, and clinical recovery, while in a second patient removal of COVID-19 by the Hemopurifier cartridge was observed. The Hemopurifier is currently under further investigation in up to 40-patients in a safety and feasibility study in ICU patients with COVID-19 infection.

Removal of large viruses and their dispersal through fecal pellets of the appendicularianOikopleura dioicaduringEmiliania huxleyibloom conditions

AbstractDespite their importance in shaping the structure and function of marine microbial food webs, little is known about factors regulating marine virus abundance. Previous work demonstrated clearance of laboratory‐culturedEmiliania huxleyivirus by the appendicularianOikopleura dioica; however, the applicability of this interaction to natural virus assemblages was not investigated. Here, we conducted controlled laboratory experiments usingO. dioicaand mesocosm water containing natural virus assemblages with high densities of virus, and measured removal of virus byO. dioicausing both flow cytometry and molecular methods. Bayesian models based on flow cytometry quantification of virus particles demonstrated efficient removal of viruses (mean 90.3 mL ind−1d−1), with a clearance efficiency of 42.6% relative to food algae. Molecular detection of virus removal by quantification of viralmcpgene copies revealed a mean clearance rate of 68.1 mL ind−1d−1. Fecal pellets from these experiments demonstrated that viruses in fecal pellets retain infectivity despite passage through theO. dioicagut. Shotgun metavirome analysis demonstratedO. dioicaremoval of large virus groups, notably the Phycodnaviridae. The results demonstrate the removal ofE. huxleyivirus from natural virus assemblages byO. dioicaand the maintenance of viral infectivity when incorporated into fecal pellets, prompting further investigation on the fate of fecal‐packaged viruses and their impact on host dynamics. Furthermore, our results indicate the generality of this interaction for other large algal viruses, raising questions about the implications of this mechanism of marine virus redistribution on the broader marine virus community.

Applicability of pepper mild mottle virus and cucumber green mottle mosaic virus as process indicators of enteric virus removal by membrane processes at a potable reuse facility

Treatment of wastewater for potable reuse is increasingly becoming a suitable alternative water source to meet the growing urban water needs worldwide. Potable reuse requires reduction of enteric viruses to levels at which they do not pose a risk to human health. Advanced water treatment trains (e.g., microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), and ultraviolet light and advanced oxidation process (UV/AOP)) provide significant protection and reduce virus loads in highly treated final product waters. Even though viruses are a principal concern, the performance of virus removal by membrane processes is not easily determined. The objective of this study was to evaluate the applicability of Aichi virus (AiV), pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV), and cross-assembly phage (crAssphage) removal as possible process indicators for MF, UF, and RO. Virus log reduction values (LRVs) based on gene copies measured using molecular methods were determined for MF and UF. The median LRVs of all viruses obtained after MF and UF were 2.9 and 3.1, respectively. The LRVs of the proposed indicators were lower than those of human enteric viruses. The morphological and physicochemical difference among indicators was not found to affect LRVs. Therefore, all proposed indicator viruses were determined to be suitable candidates as process indicators for MF and UF. Regarding RO, most of the viruses measured in this study were undetectable in permeate. Only PMMoV and CGMMV were detected showing median LRVs of 2.8 and 2.5, respectively. PMMoV and CGMMV are recommended as good process indicators of physical virus removal for the overall water treatment process.

Removal of SARS-CoV-2 viral markers through a water reclamation facility.

There have been multiple reports of COVID‐19 virus, SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA presence in influent wastewater of water reclamation facilities (WRFs) across the world. In this study, the removal of SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA was investigated in a WRF by collecting samples from various stages relayed to hydraulic retention time (HRT) and analyzed for viral RNA (N1 and N2) gene markers and wastewater characteristics. SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA was detected in 28 out of 28 influent wastewater and primary effluent samples. Secondary effluent showed 4 out of 9 positive samples, and all tertiary and final effluent samples were below the detection limit for the viral markers. The reduction was significant (p value < 0.005, one‐way analysis of variance [ANOVA] test) in secondary treatment, ranging from 1.4 to 2.0 log10 removal. Adjusted N1 viral marker had a positive correlation with total suspended solids, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and ammonia concentrations (Spearman's ρ = 0.61, 0.67, and 0.53, respectively, p value < 0.05), while demonstrating a strongly negative correlation with HRT (Spearman's ρ = −0.58, p value < 0.01).Practitioner points Viral RNA was present in all samples taken from influent and primary effluent of a WRF.SARS‐CoV‐2 gene marker was detected in secondary effluent in 4 out of 9 samples.Tertiary and final effluent samples tested nondetect for SARS‐CoV‐2 gene markers.Up to 0.5 and 2.0 log10 virus removal values were achieved by primary and secondary treatment, respectively.

Virus Detection and Production of Virus Free Plant Materials from the Lily by Selecting Basal Filament Flower as Explants

Lilium is a perennial bulbous flower of Lily family Liliaceae, with high ornamental and economic value. However, Lily is vulnerable to virus infection, which seriously affects the yield and quality of Lily, and poses a great threat to the production, sales, especially export of Lily, and has caused huge economic losses to the related industries. Therefore, the research on lily virus removal methods and virus detection technology has important practical significance to improve the ornamental value and economic value of lily.&#x0D; In this study, the filaments of four susceptible lily varieties,' Valdisole' (A),'Adoration'(LA),' Ice Cube'(OT) and ‘Zantriana’ (O), were used as explants. The filaments of lily were divided into three parts, namely, top, middle, and base. In this paper, the virus detection of tissue culture seedlings induced by lily filaments was carried out by using DAS-ELISA and RT-PCR, and the removal effects of Cucumber mosaic virus,(CMV) and lily symptomless virus (LSV), two common viruses in lily, were explored, and the two detection technologies were compared.&#x0D; The results showed that the success rate of tissue culture seedlings induced by filament base was the highest, and CMV virus could be basically removed. RT-PCR detection is more sensitive than DAS-ELISA detection, but RT-PCR detection requires higher test conditions and technology. Therefore, appropriate virus detection methods can be selected according to actual conditions and severity.

Impact of Viral Decontamination Method on Cytokine Profile of COVID-19 Patients.

COVID-19 related morbidity and mortality have been often attributed to an exaggerated immune response. The role of cytokines and chemokines in COVID-19 and their contributions to illness severity are known, and thus their profiling from patient bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples would help in understanding the disease progression. To date, limited studies have been performed on COVID-19 BAL samples, as the manipulation of such specimens (potentially containing live viruses) requires several laboratorial precautions, such as personnel training and special equipment, a requirement that not all laboratories can fulfil. Here, we assessed two fast and easily applicable methods (ultrafiltration and ultraviolet–C irradiation) for their impact on viral load removal or inactivation, respectively and on cytokine profiles preservation. Eight samples of BAL fluids from SARS-CoV2 patients with high viral load were tested. For both methods, complete removal was confirmed by lack of viral replication in Vero E6 cells and by RT-qPCR. Although both methods showed to remove completely the active SARS-CoV2 viral load, only UVC treatment has little or no quantitative effect on total cytokines/chemokines measurements, however cytokines profile and relative ratios are preserved or minimally altered when compared data obtained by the two different decontamination methods. Sample preparation and manipulation can greatly affect the analytical results; therefore, understanding if changes occurred after sample processing is of outmost importance for reliable data and can be useful to improve clinical practice.