Violent Offenses Research Articles

Violent Offending in Males With or Without Schizophrenia: A Role for Social Cognition?

Reduced social cognition has been reported in individuals who have committed interpersonal violence. It is unclear if individuals with schizophrenia and a history of violence have larger impairments than violent individuals without psychosis and non-violent individuals with schizophrenia. We examined social cognition in two groups with violent offenses, comparing their performance to non-violent individuals with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Two social cognitive domains were assessed in four groups: men with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder with (SSD-V, n = 27) or without (SSD-NV, n = 42) a history of violence, incarcerated men serving preventive detention sentences (V, n = 22), and healthy male controls (HC, n = 76). Theory of mind (ToM) was measured with the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC), body emotion perception with Emotion in Biological Motion (EmoBio) test. Kruskal-Wallis H-tests revealed overall group differences for social cognition. SSD-V had a global and clinically significant social cognitive impairment. V had a specific impairment, for ToM. Binary logistic regressions predicting violence category membership from social cognition and psychosis (SSD status) were conducted. The model with best fit, explaining 18%-25% of the variance, had ToM as the only predictor. Social cognitive impairment was present in individuals with a history of violence, with larger and more widespread impairment seen in schizophrenia. ToM predicted violence category membership, psychosis did not. The results suggest a role for social cognition in understanding interpersonal violence.

A proof of concept study of promotive, mixed, and risk effects using the SAVRY assessment tool items with youth with sexual offenses.

There is currently a lack of consensus about the nature of strengths in forensic assessments. With 273 justice-involved male youth and a fixed 3-year follow-up, this study adopted the approach of Farrington and colleagues to investigating the nature of associations between trichotomized variables, representing risks and strengths, and outcomes using pairs of odds ratios (ORs) and percentage point changes from base rates. Items from the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), a structured professional judgment tool used to assess risk and protective factors in justice-involved youth, were employed for this purpose. In the literature, the accuracy of SAVRY summed totals for its Risk Factor item sets (each item rated using a trichotomy) has been generally in the moderate range in predicting future violence. But the total for its summed Protective Factor items (each rated using a dichotomy) has been less consistently encouraging. In this study, contrary to their labels, the majority of SAVRY Risk and Protective Factors (rated using trichotomies) exerted a risk effect at one end of their trichotomy (risk item ratings of 2, protective item ratings of 0) and a promotive effect at the other end (risk item ratings of 0, protective factor ratings of 2) for a new violent (including sexual) offense and any new offense. Subsets of items conservatively weighted using ORs (capturing risk and strength) were statistically significantly more accurate in predicting outcomes than their originally rated counterpart subsets. Implications for understanding the nature of strengths and for applied assessment practices are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Criminology against war

Following the armed conflict in the former Yugoslavia, a new criminology of war developed, producing fresh insights and opening up original research streams. The incorporation of war within the remit of criminological analysis, advocated by classical as well as critical criminology, rapidly gained new momentum. The focus on asymmetrical conflicts and invasions unveiled the massive killing of civilians, bringing war into the arena of victimology. Moreover, the examination of the material forces that drive international conflicts situated such conflicts among the violent predatory offences that concern most criminological theories. The study of ‘war crimes’, ultimately, led some authors to shift attention towards ‘war as crime’. After briefly summarising the developments that shaped a criminology of war, this paper attempts further analytical steps towards the formulation of a criminology against war. A critique of the concept of ‘just wars’ is followed by the examination of the ambiguities that cloud the notions of jus ad bellum and jus in bello. Current legal provisions regulating international conflict are described as blank norms, while principles of peacebuilding are finally pinpointed.

Neuropsychiatric correlates of olfactory identification and traumatic brain injury in a sample of impulsive violent offenders.

Olfactory deficits have a diverse etiology and can be detected with simple olfactory tests. Key olfactory pathways are located within the frontal and temporal lobes where they are vulnerable to damage due to head trauma. Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) integrity is important for olfaction and aspects of behavioral regulation. We measured olfactory identification ability in a sample of impulsive violent offenders to determine its associations with history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and a range of neuropsychiatric indices, including proxies for cognitive ability, impulsivity and social connectedness. Male participants were drawn from the ReINVEST study, a randomized controlled trial of sertraline to reduce recidivism in violent impulsive offenders. Criteria for participation in the study included a minimum age of 18 years, a documented history of two or more violent offenses, and a score of 70 or above on the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11). The 16-item "Sniffin sticks" (SS) odor identification test (OI) was administered as were standardized questionnaires regarding previous TBI, additional measures to screen cognition [word reading test of the Wechsler Individuals Achievement Test (WIAT), social connectedness (the Duke Social Support Scale), and a range of other neuropsychiatric conditions or symptoms]. The sample SS scores were compared against published age-specific norms. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed with SS score (linear regression, within those without hyposmia) or hyposmia (logistic regression) as the outcome. The mean OI scores were lower than population norms and 16% of participants were classified as hyposmic. Univariate analyses showed associations of SS score with age, WIAT score, impulsivity, TBI and TBI severity, social connectedness, childhood sexual abuse, suicidality and current use of heroin. In multivariate analyses, age, TBI severity and WIAT remained as significant independent predictors of SS score (within the normosmic range) or hyposmia (logistic regression). Olfactory performance was associated with multiple behavioral phenomena in a pattern that would be consistent with this serving as a proxy for orbitofrontal functioning. As such, OI testing may have utility in further studies of offenders. In future, we will examine whether olfactory score predicts recidivism or response to the administration of sertraline, in terms of reducing recidivism.

Suicide risk in male incarcerated individuals in Spain: clinical, criminological and prison-related correlates

BackgroundPrison suicide is a complex phenomenon that may be influenced by individual, clinical, social and environmental factors. In Spain, few studies have explored the relationship with institutional, prison-related variables. The aim of this study is to examine correlates of suicide in a sample of male incarcerated individuals from 5 Spanish penitentiary centers.MethodsThis present study entails a secondary data analysis, using data from the Prevalence of mental disorders in prisons study. This is a cross-sectional multicenter study conducted in 2007–2008 across 5 penitentiary centers in Spain. The Spanish version of the Plutchik suicide risk scale was used to assess the risk of suicide (those scoring ≥ 6 were considered to be at risk of suicide). Sociodemographic, clinical, criminological and prison-related data were collected via face-to face interviews and criminological data were confirmed using penitentiary records.ResultsThe final sample included 707 male incarcerated individuals (mean age 36.79 years ± 9.90 years). Several significant correlates associated with higher risk of suicide were identified including criminological factors (having committed a violent offense, being a recidivist), clinical factors (family history of mental disorders, the presence of mental disorders, having physical conditions, contact with a mental health specialist, medication treatment in the last 12 months), and prison-related determinants (workshop/training course participation) was significantly associated with lower suicide risk.ConclusionsSeveral correlates within a comprehensive range of sociodemographic, criminological, clinical and prison-related variables were identified. This information is primordial for preventing suicide and reducing the existing risk. The findings may contribute to developing effective suicide prevention programs within Spanish prison services. Importantly, future research must continue to investigate the nature of suicidal outcomes among incarcerated individuals.

Adversity in childhood and later involvement in serious violent crime

ObjectiveTo use longitudinal birth cohort data linked to police records to examine whether the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and police-recorded serious violence depends on the type, timing or duration of ACEs.
 MethodsThe sample are 5070 participants (born 1991-1992) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children who allowed linkage to Avon and Somerset (A&S) local police data, lived in A&S from age 16-24 years, and had exposure and confounder data. The binary outcome (no, yes) is having a police record for a serious violence (SV) offence from age 16-24. ACEs were parent-reported from birth to age 11 and include measures of parental physical and emotional abuse. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between the timing of different ACEs and SV, adjusted for child sex, ethnicity, and family socioeconomic position.
 Results6% of the participants had experienced physical abuse, 17% emotional abuse, and 121 individuals (2.4%) had at least one SV record. In adjusted models, there was evidence of an association between physical (OR 1.90, 95% 1.08-3.35) but not emotional (0.96, 0.60-1.54) abuse and risk of SV. Results suggest that those who experienced physical abuse in both early (<4 years) and later (4-11 years) childhood, or later childhood only, might have been at greater risk of SV than those who experienced it only during early childhood, although numbers were small and confidence intervals were consequently wide.
 ConclusionResults to date suggest that associations with SV differ between ACE types, and that timing may be important. In our presentation, we will also present findings for other ACEs.

Self-reported traumatic brain injury in a sample of impulsive violent offenders: neuropsychiatric correlates and possible "dose effects".

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major public health problem that may be associated with numerous behavioral problems, including impulsivity, aggression and violence. Rates of self-reported TBI are high within offender populations, but the extent to which TBI is causally implicated in causing illegal behavior is unclear. This study examined the psychological and functional correlates of histories of traumatic brain injury in a sample of impulsive violent offenders. Study participants, all men, had been recruited to participate in a randomized controlled trial of sertraline to reduce recidivism. Study entry criteria were an age of at least 18 years, a documented history of two or more violent offenses and a score of 70 or above on the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. An extensive list of standardized questionnaires was administered to obtain information on previous TBI and other neuropsychiatric conditions or symptoms. In the sample of 693 men, 66% were aged between 18 and 35 years old, and 55% gave a history of TBI ("TBI+"). Overall, 55% of study participants reported at least one TBI. High levels of neuropsychiatric symptomatology were reported. In 75% of TBI+ individuals, their most severe TBI (by self-report) was associated with loss of consciousness (LOC) < 30 min. Compared to TBI- (those without history of TBI) participants, TBI+ individuals were more impulsive (Eysenck Impulsivity), irritable, angry, and reported higher levels of assaultive behavior, depressive symptomology, alcohol use disorder, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and lower quality of life. Potential "dose effects" of TBI severity and frequency in terms of neuropsychiatric symptomatology were identified. Like other studies of offender populations, single and multiple TBIs were very common. The associations of TBI, TBI severity, and TBI frequency (i.e., TBI "burden") with adverse neuropsychiatric phenomena suggest TBI contributes importantly to offender morbidity but the select nature of the sample and cross-sectional study design constrain the interpretation of these findings.

Differentiating Between Sexual Offending and Violent Non-sexual Offending in Men With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Using Machine Learning.

Forensic psychiatric populations commonly contain a subset of persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) who have committed sex offenses. A comprehensive delineation of the features that distinguish persons with SSD who have committed sex offenses from persons with SSD who have committed violent non-sex offenses could be relevant to the development of differentiated risk assessment, risk management and treatment approaches. This analysis included the patient records of 296 men with SSD convicted of at least one sex and/or violent offense who were admitted to the Centre for Inpatient Forensic Therapy at the University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich between 1982 and 2016. Using supervised machine learning, data on 461 variables retrospectively collected from the records were compared with respect to their relative importance in differentiating between men who had committed sex offenses and men who had committed violent non-sex offenses. The final machine learning model was able to differentiate between the two types of offenders with a balanced accuracy of 71.5% (95% CI = [60.7, 82.1]) and an AUC of .80 (95% CI = [.67, .93]). The main distinguishing features included sexual behaviours and interests, psychopathological symptoms and characteristics of the index offense. Results suggest that when assessing and treating persons with SSD who have committed sex offenses, it appears to be relevant to not only address the core symptoms of the disorder, but to also take into account general risk factors for sexual recidivism, such as atypical sexual interests and sexual preoccupation.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Treatability in Dutch Patients with Cluster B Personality Disorders Mandated to Forensic Clinical Care: A Comparison of Men Convicted for Sexual and Violent Offenses

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been consistently linked to interpersonal violence and are highly prevalent in correctional populations, particularly in men who perpetrate (sexual) violent behavior. Although exposure to ACEs is common in men who perpetrate interpersonal violence, less is known about the differences between men who commit sexual versus non-sexual violence. This cross-sectional study reports on the differences in prevalence of adverse childhood experiences in Dutch men who committed sexual offenses (N = 29) versus those who committed (non-sexual) violent offenses (N = 29), all who have been mandated to forensic clinical care. Drawing on data from a RCT-study among male forensic psychiatric inpatients with cluster B personality disorders from seven forensic hospitals in the Netherlands, the study explored potential differences in ACEs, and its relationship to treatability in the first year of forensic treatment. No significant differences were found in prevalence of childhood abuse and neglect among men convicted for sexual offenses versus those convicted for violent offenses. In our study, ACEs were not predictive of risk relating to treatability at the start of forensic treatment. Our findings suggest that taking into account trauma histories is of equal importance for both offending groups. Implications regarding trauma-informed forensic care are discussed.

Violence in first-episode psychosis: evidence from an early intervention in psychosis programme.

Psychotic disorders are frequently associated with a public perception of dangerousness and belligerence. This situation has contributed to the social stigmatisation of people with severe mental illness and the resulting discrimination that this scenario entails. Despite efforts to demystify such disorders, the association between violent behaviour and psychosis remains unclear. To explore the incidence of the main types of violent offences in a cohort of patients presenting with first-episode psychosis (FEP). Participants were recruited from the First Episode Psychosis Intervention Program (CRUPEP) cohort between 2009 and 2016. The main clinical variables were collected, including medical-forensic records of participants registered at the Basque Institute of Forensic Medicine (BIFM), to identify any violent acts in which participants were involved, either as victims or as offenders. Overall, 79.5% (n = 182) of the participants had no record of violent crime or offence recorded in the BIFM. Annual crime rates for the 2009-2016 period show a decreasing trend in both the general population (IRR = 0.981, 95% CI 0.978-0.983, P < 0.001) and in the FEP group (IRR = 0.019, 95% CI 0.012-0.028, P < 0.001); this pattern is more pronounced in the FEP group. Victimisation accounted for the vast majority of reported incidents; nevertheless, participants who had committed violent offences were mostly involved in intrafamily violence. Individuals with FEP were not involved in a higher number of crimes than the general population. The types of violent acts committed by people with FEP were heterogeneous, with extreme violence being particularly uncommon.

“Young Brown Men Being Brutish”: How Police Ten 7 Portrays Māori and Pacifica People as Violent and Criminal in Aotearoa New Zealand.

In 2021, the New Zealand reality-TV show Police Ten 7 was publicly criticized for feeding racial stereotypes by showing “young brown men being brutish”. While several overseas studies verify that reality-TV crime shows tend to portray non-white minorities as intrinsically criminal, such research is scarce in New Zealand. Our study sought to determine whether Police Ten 7 represents Māori and Pasifika (i.e., “brown”) people fairly in light of official police statistics; and, particularly, if any distorted representation suggests that Māori and Pasifika people are more violent. We analysed 12 episodes of Police Ten 7, aired in late 2020, quantitatively and compared our data with official police statistics. We found that, on Police Ten 7, Māori and Pasifika people are underrepresented as police officers and overrepresented as suspects, and overrepresented in violent offence categories. Also, most of the TV airtime dedicated to suspects is spent on Māori and Pasifika. We argue that these distortions are intensified through contrasting juxtapositions with white suspects who are underrepresented both as suspects and violent offenders, and overrepresented as harmless drunks and bad drivers. We conclude that together these distortions and contrasting juxtapositions serve to promote the image of Māori and Pasifika as the violent criminal other.

Legal protection for victims of sexual violence in Indonesia in the perspectives of victimology and fiqh jinayah

Sexual violence is a global problem that violates human rights and fundamental freedoms. This paper examines the laws and regulations that guarantee the protection of victims according to Indonesian laws and Islamic law. Regarding Indonesian laws, besides the basic rules in the form of the Act on the Crime of Sexual Violence, there are also ministerial regulations (Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture, and Regulation of the Minister of Religion) that protect and guarantee the safety of everyone from sexual violence offences. This is the concern of higher education institutions, that they are on the right track to address the issue of sexual violence with more passion and precision. The issues of sexual violence have received greater attention in universities, so that intensive prevention and response efforts are very important, with the aim of combating sexual violence in universities, navigating the application of laws and regulations relating to sexual violence, and more broadly, fostering a culture of respect, inclusion and courtesy towards others. These national laws are in line with the Islamic precepts regarding protection of citizens in the maqasid al-shariah concept, in which sexual violence offences can fall into all three categories of jarimah: qisas, hudud, and ta'zir, depending on the type of crimes committed.

Community Perceptions, Concerns for Privacy, and Support for Law Enforcement Use of Aerial Surveillance in Baltimore

In 2020, the Baltimore Police Department implemented the Aerial Investigation Research (AIR) surveillance program, partnering with a third-party vendor that took video surveillance of the city to supporting investigations for four violent offenses: murders, non-fatal shootings, armed robberies, and carjacking. This study examined which factors shape community support for the program. Survey data was collected from Baltimore city residents online and over the phone ( N = 769). Results indicate that fear of crime and perceptions of police legitimacy and bias effect support for the AIR program. Importantly, residents who were more concerned about privacy violations were less likely to support the program and viewed it as less effective. Findings emphasize the need for police to examine public support prior to program implementation.

The impact of COVID-19 and associated public health restrictions on trends in police-recorded violence in an English police force area

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic, and associated public health measures, had a marked impact on a number of health and wellbeing outcomes, including alcohol use and violence. Current literature presents a mixed view of the impact of the pandemic on violence trends. The current study utilises police offence data from a region of northern England to examine the impact of lockdowns, and subsequent relaxation of restrictions, on trends in violent offences.MethodsTime series analyses using seasonal auto-regressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) modelling was used to investigate the impacts of the COVID-19 public health measures on weekly offence trends from April 1 2018 to March 20 2021. Additionally, pre-pandemic data were used to forecast expected trends had the pandemic not occurred. These expected trends were then compared to actual data to determine if the average levels of violence were outside the forecasted expectations. Overall violence and six subtypes (violence with and without injury, sexual offences including rape, domestic violence, and alcohol-related violent offences) were examined.ResultsOverall, the observed trend in police recorded violent offences demonstrated fluctuating patterns in line with commencement and easing of public health restrictions. That is, offence numbers declined during lockdowns and increased after relaxation of restrictions. However, the majority of observed values fell within the expected range. This broad pattern was also found for subtypes of violent offences.ConclusionsWhile violent crime trends demonstrated fluctuations with lockdowns, and subsequent easing of restrictions, these changes were not demonstrably larger than expected trends within this English region, suggesting that a sustained amplification in violence was not observed within this data. However, it is important to acknowledge the high levels of violence reported in this region across the study period, which should be used as a key driver for investing in long-term approaches to violence prevention. Given the extent of unreported violence generally, and that victims/survivors may come into contact with other support services (without reporting to the police), it is vital that policy and practice decisions take a holistic approach, considering a broad range of data sources.

Restorative Justice for Sexual Violence Offences in England and Wales: The Challenges Ahead

While an increased number of restorative justice (RJ) cases involving sexual violence are observed across England and Wales, the extent and scope of its use remain unclear. This article presents the findings of a brief survey distributed amongst RJ practitioners across England and Wales which aimed to understand the use of RJ in cases of sexual violence. We found that while RJ is widely used in such cases, a comprehensive national picture remains unknown. We found problems both collating and analysing the data because of definitional differences, varying organizational recording mechanisms (within and between organizations and geographical boundaries) plus a lack of national direction across the criminal justice system. We call for the development of a sound evidence base that will promote and support the use of RJ for cases involving sexual violence.

“Risk and abolition: perspectives of front-line domestic violence workers supporting refugee and migrant women on safety and policing”

ABSTRACT Anti-violence advocates continue to criminalise new gender-based violence offences, despite the evidence of unintended consequences for marginalised groups. Using an intersectional framework of risk, this article aims to understand what drives front-line domestic and family violence workers to engage the law for the protection of the women they support. The data draws from a study examining responses in domestic violence policy and service interventions to refugees in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Thirty-one interviews were conducted with front-line workers supporting refugee women experiencing domestic violence. Two-thirds of the interview participants are from refugee and migrant backgrounds themselves. Interview data analysis shows a combination of governing and managing actuarial risk across three themes: 1) Why a preference for the law? 2) Autonomy or discourses of responsibility? and 3) The mutual constitution of risk and inequalities. Highlighting the differences between those who address domestic and family violence on the front-line, the findings reveal that front-line workers are both constrained by and contribute to various assemblages of risk in the carceral nation state. I suggest key steps towards engaging front-line workers in an abolitionist agenda that centre on knowledge translation and research partnerships.

Risk factors for violence among female forensic inpatients with schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is associated with a heightened risk of violent behavior. However, conclusions on the nature of this relationship remain inconclusive. Equally, the empirical evidence on female patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) is strongly underrepresented. For this purpose, the first aim of the present retrospective follow-up study was to determine the risk factors of violence in a sample of 99 female SSD patients discharged from forensic psychiatric treatment between 2001 and 2017, using three different measures of violence at varying time points (i.e., violent index offense, inpatient violence, and violent recidivism). Potential risk factors were retrieved from the relevant literature on SSD as well as two violence risk assessment instruments (i.e., HCR-20 V3, FAM). Further, we aimed to assess the predictive validity of the HCR-20 V3 in terms of violent recidivism and evaluate the incremental validity of the FAM as a supplementary gender-responsive assessment. The given results indicate strong heterogeneity between the assessed violence groups in terms of risk factors. Particularly, violence during the index offense was related to psychotic symptoms while inpatient violence was associated with affective and behavioral instability as well as violent ideation/intent, psychotic symptoms, and non-responsiveness to treatment. Lastly, violent recidivism was related to non-compliance, cognitive instability, lack of insight, childhood antisocial behavior, and poverty. Further, the application of the HCR-20 V3 resulted in moderate predictive accuracy (AUC = 0.695), while the supplementary assessment of the FAM did not add any incremental validity. This article provides important insights into the risk factors of violence among female SSD patients while highlighting the importance of differentiating between various forms of violence. Equally, it substitutes the existing evidence on violence risk assessment in female offenders with SSD.

A meta-analysis of the effect of violence intervention programs on general and violent recidivism

Individuals with convictions for violence are likely to have both violent and nonviolent subsequent reoffences. Individuals who have committed violent offences are often required to participate in violence treatment programming prior to release. The aim of this study was to examine whether violence intervention programs offered in community or institutional correctional settings are effective for reducing general and violent recidivism among individuals with previous histories of violence. In total, 21 controlled studies with data from 17,223 violent offenders (99% men) were included in the meta-analysis for general recidivism, and 19 controlled studies with data from 8,863 offenders (99% men) were included in the meta-analysis for violent recidivism. This article extends an earlier meta-analysis by Papalia et al. (Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 26(2), 1–28 [2019]) by adding seven new studies to the meta-analysis of general recidivism and five new studies to the meta-analysis of violent recidivism. The results of the meta-analysis indicate that the odds of general recidivism were 25% lower, and the odds of violent recidivism were 24% lower for individuals who participated in interventions compared with the control groups. The results of the present study are consistent with previous meta-analyses, which support the use of correctional violence treatment programs. Implications for future research are identified, considering these findings.

GIFCT Tech Trials: Combining Behavioural Signals to Surface Terrorist and Violent Extremist Content Online

Technical approaches for surfacing, reviewing, and removing terrorist and violent extremist content online have evolved in recent years. Larger companies have added metrics and insights in transparency reports, disclosing that most content removed for terrorist and violent extremist offences is proactive, using hybrid models deploying tooling in combination with human oversight. However, less is known about the algorithmic tools or hybrid models deployed by tech platforms to ensure greater accuracy in surfacing terrorist threats. This paper reviews existing tools deployed by platforms to counter terrorism and violent extremism online, including ethical concerns and oversight needed for algorithmic deployment, before analysing initial results from a GIFCT technical trial. The Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism (GIFCT) Technical Trial discussed in this paper presents the results from testing a methodology using behavioural and linguistic signals to more accurately and proactively surface terrorist and violent extremist content relating to potential real-world attacks. As governments, tech companies, and networks like GIFCT develop crisis and incident response protocols, the ability to quickly identify perpetrator content associated with attacks is crucial, whether that relates to the live streaming of an attack, or an attacker manifesto launched in parallel to the real-world violence. Building on previous academic research, while the deployment of layered signals shows promise in proactive detection and the reduction of false/positives, it also highlights the complexities of user speech, online behaviours, and cultural nuances.

Mapping Danger

Natural resource-based projects represent an important sector in Canada’s economy, where the energy, mining, and forestry industries accounted for 17% of Canada’s gross domestic product in 2018 (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). Many projects are located on or near Indigenous lands, disproportionately impacting Indigenous peoples (Gibson et al., 2017). The negative environmental impacts of resource-based projects are well documented (Koutouki et al., 2018; Westman &amp; Joly, 2019); however, the social consequences are often overlooked. Recently, numerous non-profit organizations have documented a connection between resource-based projects and increased numbers of violent offences against Indigenous women (Amnesty International, 2016b; Bond &amp; Quinlan, 2018; Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, 2021;), but few academic articles have addressed this issue. Therefore, a non-systematic scoping review was conducted on available grey literature, news articles, and academic literature to examine key concepts and themes. This review demonstrates that colonization has placed Indigenous women in Canada at higher risk of violence. The introduction of resource-based projects exacerbates this issue through three key processes: the presence of “man camps,” economic changes, and changing family dynamics. In combination with an inadequate criminal justice system, the resulting violence against Indigenous women can be categorized into three overlapping groups: domestic violence, workplace violence, and sexual violence. An economic map was developed to illustrate the locations of resource-based projects associated with this issue (see Figure 1). This paper suggests potential solutions including addressing toxic workplace culture, updating policies and protocols, ensuring meaningful consultation with Indigenous peoples, and increasing government protections.