Violence Aggression Research Articles

Pobreza, movimiento social y mujer

Women’s participation has largely nourished social movements, fundamentally what we call in Mexico “independent (non pro-governmental) popular (poor people) organizations” (IPOs). Therefore, the life of IPOs is due (and we’re not exaggerating) to female participation, which is not restricted to routine activities, but has even included avoiding violent aggressions from government and traditional pro-governmental organizations. However, even if the IPOs are composed to 90% by women, leaders are always males, and women are grass roots, never leaders. “Machismo” is the spirit prevailing in men’s hearts… but also in women’s, who have accepted male leadership because they aren’t secure of their abilities to head their organizations. But also because they have to go on with housekeeping, raising their children and, very importantly, attending to their husbands, who usually don’t agree with their wives’ participation. Women’s struggle for their rights has had an strong international impact, but it seems that the IPOs in Puebla haven’t been penetrated enough by this process in order to go beyond the borders that women have imposed on themselves and in which they are trapped. This article explores some elements concerning the gap between women’s comprehension of their situation and their difficulty to change it. Key words: gender, organization, poverty.

The Psychopharmacologic Treatment of Violent Youth

Aggressive violence has been described as the greatest problem and the most frequent reason for referrals in child and adolescent psychiatry. In this country we have only partially emerged from an epidemic of violence that was really an epidemic of youth violence. Thus it is hardly surprising that psychiatrists are being asked more and more frequently whether psychiatric medications might help to diminish the toll from this behavioral plague. Medications are useful and appropriate for only a small minority of the people who commit serious violence. Even when they are indicated, they can never be the sole treatment modality, but should be supplemented by psychological and social therapies. When the violence is a byproduct or symptom of an underlying mental illness, treating that illness is generally the most effective method of preventing future violence on a long-term basis. However, most violence is not committed by those who are mentally ill, and most of the mentally ill never commit a serious act of violence. That is why many attempts have been made to discover whether there are drugs that diminish the symptom, violence, even when there is no underlying mental illness for which drugs would normally be prescribed. In fact there are several, and their indications and use are reviewed here. Different principles govern the acute short-term emergency treatment of a violent crisis and the long-term treatment of those who are chronically and repetitively violent, and these differences are also summarized here.

Violence as Self-Sacrifice: Creative Pacifism in a Violent World

E.S. Brightman said that both individuals and communities have moral experi ence, a proposition more easily understood concretely than abstractly (Brightman 1938, 57-64). Regarding violence, it takes whole communities to build bomb ers, but it only takes a few individuals with box cutters to turn a plane into a bomb. As President Bush realizes, either could be an act of war, but as he prob ably does not realize, either could be construed as terrorism as well. Brightman's postulate is thus illustrated in the terrible arena of violence, and it connects his pacifism with Martin Luther King Jr.'s nonviolent social action. However, the sword cuts both ways. A consistent argument for nonviolent action must deal not only with Bull Conner in Alabama but also with Adolf Hitler in Germany. Violence is a cancer. Insofar as both societies and individuals are persons, violence destroys both and perpetuates itself. Like cancer, which sometimes is overcome through damaging treatments like radiation and chemotherapy, some times violence is overcome only with more violence. For this reason, I will argue that absolute pacifism, while ideal, is not tenable in a world where vio lence exists. Though Brightman and King rightly observe that violence dam ages the perpetrator's personhood more than that of its victim, there are times when the loving act is to sacrifice one's person and end violence violently.1 My position includes Brightman's pacifism and King's nonviolence with out completely agreeing with them, so I will explore Brightman's and King's pacifism, followed by rebuttals from Charles Hartshorne and Malcolm X.2 Both sides of this debate, I will argue, are fundamentally correct in their observa tions, but neither fully realizes itself as a complement to the other. Personalist pacifism's weakness lies in its inadequate account of violence's effects in the real world. Hartshorne and Malcolm X correct this weakness through their lim ited justification of violence as self-defense, but they fail to capture the bitter ness of their medicine. Violence, even as self-defense, destroys persons. If we lose sight of this fact, violence as self-defense may aggressive violence; it may become part of the problem. Though King is right that we choose between non violence and nonexistence, sometimes free, otherwise nonviolent persons must

Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Program on Neuroendocrine Abnormalities Associated with Aggression and Crime

Both chronic and acute stress can cause long-lasting abnormalities in the neuroendocrine systems mediating adaptation. These abnormalities, in turn, are thought to contribute to psychological disturbances such as anxiety, depression, and hostility, and to behaviors such as substance abuse, violent aggression, and criminal acts. This article reviews evidence for neuroendocrine abnormalities in aggression and crime, defines stress as it relates to adaptation and behaviors, discusses stress-induced abnormalities in neuroendocrine systems, and reviews evidence that the Transcendental Meditation (TM)1 program may reduce aggression and crime in part by removing these stress-induced abnormalities. The TM program appears to reverse or remove both the physiological and psychological disturbances arising from stress, thus strengthening the individual's coping abilities and restoring a sense of well-being. These normalizing effects of the Transcendental Meditation program are expected to enhance an individual's resilience and to promote the ability to fulfill desires in socially responsible ways.

Rape and HIV/AIDS in Rwanda

Rape and HIV/AIDS in Rwanda

Violent Behavior Among Urban Youth Attending Alternative Schools

This study described violent behavior and aggression among youth attending alternative schools, and examined sociodemographic factors associated with such violence. The study involved 494 students attending 10 alternative schools in Houston, Texas. Data were collected between November 2000 and February 2001 by audio-enabled laptop computers equipped with headphones. Students self-reported an average of 11.8 aggressive acts during the week prior to the survey. Students reported a 30-day weapon carrying prevalence of 22.7%; 30-day gun carrying prevalence of 11.1%; 30-day knife or club prevalence of 17.2%; 12-month fighting prevalence of 50.6%; and 12-month prevalence of injuries due to fighting of 6.5%. Association between demographic variables, self-reported aggressive behavior, and other forms of aggression was examined using multivariate logistic regression. Students were divided into four mutually exclusive violence-related categories: no fighting and no weapon (referent), fighting only, carrying weapon only, fighting and weapon carrying. Student aggression was significantly associated with fighting and weapon carrying, with incremental increases at each level (OR 1.1 per unit of increase, 95% CI 1.1-1.2) and in presence of the covariates. Among Houston's alternative school students, the prevalence of violent behavior (weapon carrying, gun carrying, knife or club carrying, fighting, and treatment by a doctor or nurse for injuries) is higher compared to regular high school students. Aggression related strongly to weapon carrying and fighting in the sample. Data indicate alternative school youth urgently need prevention and treatment programs to help them live in safer environments.

Unforgiven: The Elusive Essence of Violence

Our films preserve a record of popular beliefs about the sources of human violence, yet sometimes explain their characters' actions with theories of violence that have been challenged or discarded as untenable. The 1992 film, Basic Instinct, in its title and in its characters' actions embraces Freud's concept of an instinctual link between sexual desire and aggressive violence. In the film the two merge, as in the bedroom scenes between Michael Douglas and Sharon Stone, where boundaries between sex and violence blur, or, in the opening scene in which a retired rock star's sexual climax converges with Stone's character murdering him with an ice pick (placing a phallic image side by side with a phallus). Violence, this film tells us, has as its source the same instinctual well as sexual desire.

Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Premorbid and Prodromal Diagnostic and Treatment Histories

There is increasing interest in the possible relationship between the early diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia during adolescence and improved long-term outcome. This study reviews the premorbid and prodromal diagnostic and treatment histories for childhood-onset schizophrenia, to assess whether early identification and treatment is possible in this school-age group. Parents of 17 children with childhood-onset schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder were questioned retrospectively regarding symptoms, exposure to mental health professionals, diagnoses, and treatments. Initial presenting symptoms clustered around violent aggression and school problems. Age of first recognized psychotic symptoms ranged from 2 to 11 years, followed 2.0+/-2.0 years later by a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Prior to a schizophrenia diagnosis, these children were exposed to stimulants, antidepressants, lower-dose typical neuroleptics, mood stabilizers, alternative treatments, and individual and family therapy. Early diagnosis of childhood-onset schizophrenia is met with caution in the psychological and medical community. These children received many diagnoses before schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder was diagnosed. A diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and utilization of effective atypical neuroleptic treatment was delayed until evaluation by a child and adolescent psychiatrist. Obstacles to early identification and treatment are discussed.

Violent Crime, Aggression and Amphetamine: what are the implications for drug treatment services?

Substance use has long been associated with violent behaviour, particularly the use of alcohol and stimulants. This paper presents findings from a study of the effectiveness of treatment services for amphetamine users, describing profiles for those reporting violent and aggressive behaviour and documenting their experiences. The sample (n = 86) comprised two groups: amphetamine users seeking drug treatment and a matched case control group of amphetamine users who were not receiving treatment. Forty-seven per cent of the sample reported having committed a violent crime, and half of them associated the violence with their amphetamine use. In addition, 62% repeated ongoing problems with aggression which were related to their amphetamine use. A wide range of factors are discussed in this paper, using established models of association between drug use and violence, and also exploring issues such as the interaction of alcohol and other drugs, the effects of trying to abstain from amphetamine, psychological co-morbidity, the impact of amphetamine's reputation for inducing aggression, and conversely, amphetamine as a drug of choice over alcohol to try to minimize aggressive behaviour. The paper concludes with a discussion of the problems posed by aggressive and violent behaviour for amphetamine users seeking treatment.

"The Long Arm" and the Law

commit acts of aggressive violence: Inverted women, who may retain their feminine emotionality combined with some degree of infantile impulsiveness and masculine energy, present a favorable soil for the seeds of crime, under those conditions of jealousy and allied emotions which must so oftenf enter into the invert's life.' Among the various case studies that Ellis cites as evidence of lesbian criminality, none was more familiar to the American public than that of Alice Mitchell. Just five years earlier, the young Tennessee woman had murdered her lover, Freda Ward, in what Ellis could rightly call a passional crime of jealousy. Mitchell confessed, killed Freda because I loved her, and she refused to marry me. During the sensational coverage of Mitchell's trial, news accounts hastened to feed public curiosity about lesbian desire and criminality, whose seemingly inescapable connection was underscored in a New York Medical Record account titled Lesbian Love and Murder.2 Small wonder that this potent mixture of lesbianism, jealousy, and murder should become the stuff of detective fiction in Mary Wilkins Freeman's The Long Arm, winner of an 1895 Bacheller News Syndicate detective story contest.' While Laura Behling argues that the Alice Mitchell case offers a suggestive model for Freeman's text, Bradley Shaw notes that the Lizzie Borden trial was a New England scandal Freeman must also have known well.4 Both are crucial precedents, for if The Long Arm turns out to resemble the Alice Mitchell case, the structure of Freeman's text requires us to believe that it might, in fact, be the Lizzie Borden story. The Long Arm centers on Sarah Fairbanks, a young woman accused of her father's murder, who takes on the role of detective in an attempt to exonerate herself. Sarah wakes one

Population crises and population cycles

To prevent a population irretrievably depleting its resources, mammals have evolved a behavioural and physiological response to population crisis. When a mammalian population becomes dangerously dense, there is a reversal of behaviour. Co‐operation and parental behaviour are replaced by competition, dominance and aggressive violence, leading to high mortality, especially of females and young, and a reduced population. The stress of overpopulation and the resulting violence impairs both the immune and the reproductive systems. Hence epidemics complete the crash of the population, and reproduction is slowed for three or four generations, giving the resources ample time to recover. In some mammal species, crisis and crisis response recur regularly, leading to cycles of population growth and relapse, oscillating about a fixed mean. Population crisis response and population cycles have been equally prominent in the history of human societies. But in man successive advances in food production have made possible growing populations, though with every such advance population soon outgrew resources again. Hence human cycles have been superimposed on a rising curve, producing a saw‐tooth graph. Because advances in food production amounted to sudden disturbances in the relations between human populations and their environments, the crisis response in man has failed to avert famine and resource damage. In the large human societies evolved since the coming of settled agriculture and cities, the basic effects of violence, epidemics, famine and resource damage have been mediated by such specifically human disasters as inflation, unemployment, and political tyranny. An account of past crises, periods of relative relief from population pressure, and resulting cycles, is given for a number of regions: China, North Africa and Western Asia, the northern Mediterranean, and north‐western Europe. The paper ends with an account of the present world‐wide population crisis, and the solution made possible by Malthus's discovery that, unlike animals, we can choose to check population growth by reducing the birth‐rate, instead of raising the death‐rate, as in other mammals, by the population crisis response.

Stages of Desire: The Mythological Tradition in Classical and Contemporary Spanish Theater (review)

REVIEWS Kidd, Michael. Stages ofDesire: The Mythological Tradition in Classical and Contemporary Spanish Theater. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999. Cloth. 266 pp. This volume is a most welcome addition to the growing body of criticism on the mythological tradition in Hispanic letters . While the most recent contributions to this field focus on one period, Kidd carefully traces the tradition from Juan del Encina's Égloga de Plácida y Victoriano (1513), the first Spanish play to rewrite classical mythology, to Luis Riaza's Medea es un buen chico (1980), a play that transforms the heterosexual Greco-Roman tale into a contemporary queer myth. Kidd traces the myth's origins and identifies the changes made by Spanish playwrights in their own plays. Kidd's solid and cogent analyses are informed by current critical trends, principally René Girard's and, to a lesser extent, Jacques Lacan's ideas on desire. The result is a refreshingly jargon-free study that combines traditional and current ideologies. In a brief introduction , Kidd offers a working definition of myth (7) and summarizes Girard's and Lacan's theories on violence and desire . In each analysis, Kidd examines the development of numerous triangles of desire among the characters, with particular attention played to the three taboos of the "nutritive, erotic , and aggressive" (15). This Girardian prototype also often involves the sacrificing of an innocent victim in order to stop violent aggression. In chapter 2, Kidd examines three pieces that span the sixteenth century and pave the way for full exploitation of the mythological tradition in subsequent centuries. Juan del Encina 's Ègloga de Placida y Victoriano is pivotal because it sets 167 168BCom, Vol. 52, No. 2 (2000) the stage for the seventeenth-century comedia that will syncretize pagan and Christian traditions, without privileging one over the other. In his second analysis, Kidd explores myth's political potential and sees Juan Timoneda's Tragicomedia llamada Filomena as a protest to a law that had banned Encina 's Plácida y Victoriano (49). This assertion, perhaps a bit forced, is nonetheless inviting, because it establishes the precedent of using the mythological play as a vehicle for political dissent. Finally, Francisco de la Cueva y Suva's Tragedia de Narciso serves as prototype for the emplotment of desire that will flourish in seventeenth-century mythological plays and comedias de honor. Three comedias from the seventeenth century are the focus of chapter 3. Kidd suggests that the mythological setting of Dido y Eneas enabled Guillen de Castro to create triangles of mimetic desire that deal ironically with conflicts between honor and honra and honor and love. This ironic distance is carried one step further in Lope de Vega's El laberinto de Creta and Calderón's Los tres mayores prodigios in which the protagonists are decidedly unheroic. In El laberinto, this cowardly behavior, coupled with several metatheatrical elements, exposes the sacrosant themes of honor and its ensuing vengeance as dramatic convention. Lope molds the tragic potential of the myth into tragicomedy, the genre best suited to comedia values. Kidd suggests that Calderón intended to draw parallels between Los tres mayores and the historical context in which it was produced, namely the tarnished image of Felipe rVs court. In the last two chapters, Kidd moves to the twentieth century . In chapter 4, he examines Electro Fedro and El señor de Pigmalión, in which Galdós, Unamuno and Grau, respectively, used myth to comment on the mediocrity of the early twentieth -century Spanish stage. In particular, Galdós and Unamuno create triangles of desire that assault complacent bourgeois values concerning the taboos of incest and fetisichism. Grau designs several extreme triangles of desire that verge on fetisichism. Kidd asserts that the use of puppets in this play underscores the "absence of authentic desire on the contemporary stage" (166). The play culminates when the puppets Reviews1 69 rebel against their creator, Pigmalión, thereby simulating a comparable liberation of contemporary theater from middleclass ideology. In a theatrical milieu dominated by the crowdpleasing Echegaray and, later, Benavente, these three dramatists argue for placing artistic over economic considerations. The two plays analyzed in chapter 5, Buero's...

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM SEROTONIN AND PERSONALITY AS VARIABLES CONTRIBUTING TO EXCESSIVE ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN NON-HUMAN PRIMATES

Non-human primates will readily consume an alcohol solution for its reinforcing effects when such a solution is palatable, with some subjects consuming alcohol to excess. In this review, we discuss variables that contribute to high alcohol consumption and the behaviours that are correlated with it in a non-human primate model. Developmental and behavioural correlates of central nervous system (CNS) serotonergic activity, as measured by concentrations of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindol-3-ylacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), were used to investigate neurogenetic influences on alcohol consumption, as well as personality traits that characterize excessive alcohol intake. Inter-individual differences in CSF 5-HIAA concentrations were shown to have trait-like qualities, and with stable inter-individual differences across time and settings. Research has shown numerous similarities between human and non-human primates with respect to Type I- and II-like alcohol abuse and their associated behaviours. In the present series of studies, features characteristic of Type I alcohol misuse, such as high levels of anxiety, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal output, and situational stress predicted high alcohol intake. Primates with low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations also exhibited behaviours characteristic of Type II alcohol abuse. Principal among the traits that these subjects exhibited were deficits in impulse control. For example, subjects with low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations engaged in spontaneous behaviours that bring reinforcement but placed them at risk, such as entering food baited traps, jumping from dangerous heights to get from one tree to another, and consuming large amounts of alcohol. They can be characterized by other Type II-like deficits, such as impaired social competence, social alienation, and unrestrained, violent aggression. Non-human primates with low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations also exhibited high intrinsic tolerance following modest intakes of alcohol, and high rates of aggression during intoxication. High preferences for sweet solutions were shown to predict excessive alcohol consumption. Maternal and paternal genetic influences played major roles in producing low CNS serotonin function and excessive alcohol consumption. These genetic influences on serotonin function were exacerbated by early rearing experiences, particularly parental deprivation.

A Tale of Novel Intoxication: Seven Cases of γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid Overdose

Study Objective: We describe seven patients presenting with combination substance abuse involving γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Methods: During a 3-month period, we identified consecutive patients with GHB ingestion confirmed by urine mass spectrometry presenting to a high-volume urban emergency department. Results: All patients presented with acute delirium and transient but severe respiratory depression. With supportive care, including intubation and mechanical ventilation in four cases, normal mentation and respiratory function returned within 2 to 6 hours. None of these patients had documented seizures, and none of the four patients who received naloxone had a reversal response. This clinical observation supports previous experimental work in GHB-intoxicated human subjects demonstrating neither epileptiform changes on electroencephalography nor reversal with naloxone. Two findings are remarkable in this series. The first is the observation of a peculiar state of violent aggression present on stimulation of the GHB-intoxicated patient despite near or total apnea. The fact that patients fully recovered from this state may be the result of a previously demonstrated GHB hypoxia-sparing effect. The second is the observation of ECG abnormalities in several cases, including U waves in five patients. Conclusion: Emergency physicians should be alerted to this agent, its characteristic effects, and its potential for serious sequelae including respiratory arrest and death. [Li J, Stokes SA, Woeckener A: A tale of novel intoxication: Seven cases of γ-Hydroxybutyric acid overdose. Ann Emerg Med June 1998;31:723-728.]

Insights into the neurobiology of impulsive behavior from serotonin receptor knockout mice.

Although the concept of impulsivity has proved useful in human and animal studies of addiction, violent aggression, and violent suicide, and has been recognized as an important component of human behavior, little research has been done to understand the underlying psychobiological mechanisms. We explore the concept of impulsivity and its relation with the neurotransmitter serotonin in the context of aggressive behavior and behavior associated with positive reinforcement using a knockout mouse that lacks one of the serotonin receptors, the 5-HT1B receptor. This knockout mouse shows more impulsive aggression, acquires cocaine self-administration faster, and drinks more alcohol than the corresponding wild-type control. We show that the impulsive characteristics of these mice are not due to change in cognitive functions: in a cognitive task involving a choice between a small immediate one and a larger more delayed reward, knockout mice showed intact choice and timing capabilities and good discrimination of reward amounts. Thus, this mouse may prove an animal model of addiction and motor impulsivity.

Aggressive Behavior and Fire-Setting in a 4-Year-Old Boy Associated with Ingestion of Ground Beef Contaminated with Bovine Thyroid Tissue: A Case Report and Review of Neuropsychiatrie Findings in Pediatric Thyrotoxicosis

An epidemic of thyrotoxicosis in 1984—1985 was traced to the ingestion of ground beef that was contaminated by bovine thyroid tissue in the tri-state area of Minnesota, South Dakota, and Iowa. This article describes a case of possible thyrotoxicosis-induced violent aggressiveness and firesetting in a 4-year-old boy affected by this epidemic. Although psychosocial factors were initially considered primary, dietary factors eventually proven to be etiologic. This child showed spontaneous decreases in violent behavior during two admissions to a hospital (where thyroid-laced beef was not available) and recurrences with returning home (where he ate contaminated ground beef). A literature review on neuropsychiatrie manifestations of pediatric thyrotoxicosis revealed that thyrotoxicosis in children may present with subtle symptoms (new onset of ADHD, drop in school grades) or overt neuropsychiatric disorders (anxiety, mood, cognitive or psychotic disorders). However, the literature did not appear to have revealed previous reports of violent aggressiveness or firesetting in children. Our case suggests that thyrotoxicosis is able to induce or exacerbate behavioral deterioration, including marked aggressivity, in susceptible children. Clinicians should watch for thyrotoxicosis, which may occur without thyroid disease for a variety of reasons. Delayed treatment can result in enduring physical, cognitive, and emotional disturbances.

Sport: An Historical Phenomenology

Sport often seems to teeter on the edge, on one side of the entertainment industry, on the other of cheating violent aggression: from a make-believe simulacrum of serious play to a nasty chemically enhanced descent into a Hobbesian state of nature. Such perversions lend credibility to reductive views of sport itself as a metonymic feature of capitalism. But that sport as entertainment means fixing it to produce exciting outcomes and amplifying capacities to superhuman proportions, while sport as aggression means treating rules as mere obstacles to brute dominance, shows how far we in fact are from these abysses, even in the days of the Coca Cola/Nike Olympics, Vinny Jones and cricket sledging. In this essay, I try to delineate through history— from Homer to … Gomer?—a common culture of sport and sportsmanship that, with its excesses and perversions, continues to operate as one, albeit complex, ideal of human excellence.

Anabolic Steroids

Anabolic steroids (ASs) are synthetic derivatives of testosterone that have both anabolic (tissue building) and androgenic (masculinizing) effects. ASs are increasingly used for the nonmedical purposes of enhancing athletic performance and physical appearance. As illicit AS abuse patterns increase, so do reports of adverse health consequences, including physical and psychological dependence, major mood disorders, psychoses, and violent aggression. Thus, psychiatrists and other addiction professionals increasingly may be seeing AS users in their practices. The authors review laboratory abnormalities as a means of detecting AS abuse and its adverse effects. Most health consequences resulting from ASs appear to be reversible after cessation of use, but life‐threatening events have been reported. In the absence of well‐controlled, longitudinal studies, neither safety nor catastrophe can be predicted for the chronic abuse of high‐dose ASs.

Anabolic Steroids: Addictive, Psychiatric, and Medical Consequences

Anabolic steroids (ASS) are synthetic derivatives of testosterone that have both anabolic (tissue building) and androgenic (masculinizing) effects. ASs are increasingly used for the nonmedical purposes of enhancing athletic performance and physical appearance. As illicit AS abuse patterns increase, so do reports of adverse health consequences, including physical and psychological dependence, major mood disorders, psychoses, and violent aggression. Thus, psychiatrists and other addiction professionals increasingly may be seeing AS users in their practices. The authors review laboratory abnormalities as a means of detecting AS abuse and its adverse effects. Most health consequences resulting from ASS appear to be reversible after cessation of use, but life-threatening events have been reported. In the absence of well-controlled, longitudinal studies, neither safety nor catastrophe can be predicted for the chronic abuse of high-dose ASs.

Non-Rapid-Eye-Movement Parasomnia With Behavior Disorder

I have presented a case of NREM parasomnia with violent aggression against another person. Treatment with clonazepam failed, but imipramine therapy was successful.