Student Violence Research Articles

‘Maybe that’s how they learned in the past, but we don’t learn like this today’: Youth perspectives on violent discipline in Lebanon’s public schools

This paper explores students’ experiences of violent school discipline in three urban public schools in Lebanon. Despite being banned by Lebanon’s Ministry of Education and Higher Education, violent discipline, including corporal punishment and verbal humiliation, emerged repeatedly from student accounts as a key barrier to school engagement. Drawing on ethnographic data and a conceptual framework informed by postcolonial and critical peace research, we consider the interaction of various forms of violence in students’ experiences of schooling and embed these within Lebanon’s larger sociohistoric, legal, and policy contexts. The findings point to linkages between poverty and violent discipline, suggesting a schema for understanding the intersection of violences in schools.

GAMBARAN PERSEPSI REMAJA PUTRI TENTANG KEKERASAN DALAM PACARAN DI SMK NEGERI 01 NANGGULAN KULONPROGO

Dating violence is often found as community problem which is part of intimate partnerviolence but many adolescents do not understand and aware themselves as victims of violence. Theaim of the study was to describe the perceptions of young women about dating violence on femalestudents at dating violence of students of vocational school SMK Negeri 1Nanggulan KulonProgousing descriptive descriptive method with a cross sectional approach. Data analysis using Chi squarewith an error rate of 0.05. The results of this study on the perceptions of adolescents about violenceon female students of SMK Negeri 1 Nanggulan were 89 students (62.2%). Poor perception of 54female students (37.8%). Adolescents 'perceptions of violence both indicate that respondents have anunderstanding that violence is wrong and unnatural in a dating relationship and respondents'understanding is good about the form of violence

The effects of therapeutic group drumming with Korean middle school students on aggression as related to school violence prevention

This study examined which of three interventions was most effective in reducing aggression in middle school students in Korea: a lecture-based general prevention program, a therapeutic drumming group featuring collaborative work between a school music teacher and a music therapist, or an education-based drumming group. A non-randomized Repeated Measured ANOVA with one repeated factor and one between-groups factor was conducted to look for any statistically significant differences among the three groups (general prevention group, therapeutic drumming group, and education-based drumming group), between pre-and post-test, or in the interaction between group and time. The Korean version of the Aggression Questionnaire and its four subscales (physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility) were examined in mixed models by time, group, and the interaction between time and group. Participants (N = 231) were the whole third-year classes of an urban middle school in Korea. The results suggested a significant Time × Group interaction on total Aggression scores, as well as on the physical aggression and hostility sub-scale scores; no significant differences were found for the verbal aggression or anger sub-scale scores. Post hoc analysis revealed that the therapeutic drumming group had significant reductions in total aggression scores and on the subscales of physical aggression and hostility compared to the education-based drumming group; however, no significant differences were found between the therapeutic drumming group and the general lecture group. These findings indicate that collaborations between school music teachers and music therapists may be used effectively to mitigate aggression related to school violence in middle school students in Korea.

The Relationship Between Playing Games Contains an Element of Violence with Aggressive Behavior of Students

Adolescents are developing individuals who are looking for their identity. In the period of seeking identity, they will find various problems, which they can solve their own problems, not infrequently they cannot overcome their own problems so they are burdened and hamper their developmental tasks. One of the changes related to psychology in adolescents is that it is easy to react even aggressively to the interference or external stimulation that affects it. That is why there is an easy fight. Like to look for attention and act without thinking first. Aggressive behavior is one form of behavior whose purpose and intention is to intentionally harm others. One of the factors that causes adolescents to behave aggressively is the violence that exists in the media such as playing games that contain elements of violence. This study aims to determine the relationship between playing games that contain elements of violence and aggressive behavior of students in the Middle School of Padang State University Laboratory Development. The results of this study revealed that: (1) playing games containing elements of violence in terms of aspects of the type of game and the frequency of playing games are in the quite high category. This means that students are quite high in playing games that contain elements of violence. (2) students' aggressive behavior in terms of aspects of ggressiveness / physical aggression (verbal aggression), verbal aggression, anger, and hostility are in the category of very high. This means that some students behave aggressively towards others. (3) there is a positive relationship between playing games containing violent elements with aggressive behavior of students in SMP Pembangunan Laboratorium UNP a correlation coefficient of 0.351, which means that the higher the level of playing games that contain elements of violence the higher the aggressive behavior of junior high school students, and vice versa the lower the level of playing games that contain elements of violence, the lower the aggressive behavior of middle school students

중학생의 언어폭력과 언어방어 교육과정 개발을 위한 조사 연구

중학생의 언어폭력과 언어방어 교육과정 개발을 위한 조사 연구

Adolescent violence: the genesis

Introduction: Recently the “Blue Whale Experience” has put the adolescents on fire. The surge in adolescent violence has become a matter of great concern in the last few decades. The inter-personal conflict builds the foundation block, which generates the spark of violence, if it is not resolved in gentleman manner. A dance between genes and environmental experiences really shape the child’s developing brain. A rapid period of brain development can be fostered by quality of responsiveness of caregivers and community environment. Numerous studies uncover a link between cognitive skills and adolescent violence. In the light of these facts this study was designed to know the environmental factors which correlate with the indulgence of violence. Material and Method: 480 students aged 10-18 years were surveyed regarding the indulgence in violence during last one year. The characteristics of different interacting environmental factors were also drilled. Results: The prevalence of violent act was 27.91% in which boys and girls were 13.75% and 14.16% respectively. Boys were outnumbered than girls as perpetrators while girls were victimized more. The interacting proximal environmental factors viz upper lower SES, mother and father education 2hr and academic failure which correlate with the indulgence in violence of students in our study point an inappropriate and low quality responsiveness. Which are perceived by the adolescents during their early years of life. These children react according to such memory and cognition in any situation inappropriately ie antisocially and indulge themselves in violence during their adolescence. They accept a socially disapproved ideology to form a negative identity formation. Discussion: These factors can be used at school level to mark the students at risk to offer the available preventive tools to achieve the best results.

School Violence in Medical and Nursing Students of a Public University in Mexico

School Violence in Medical and Nursing Students of a Public University in Mexico

Violencia escolar en bachillerato: algunas estrategias para su prevención desde diferentes perspectivas

La violencia escolar es una acción que se ha venido manifestando a través de los años y esta ha afectado la vida de quienes la han padecido. Específicamente, el bachillerato es vulnerable a la violencia y va generando consecuencias negativas en los estudiantes, tanto en el ámbito escolar como en el personal. Es por ello que el objetivo del presente trabajo es determinar los factores que se relacionan con dicha violencia en estudiantes de este nivel, con la finalidad de contribuir a su prevención. El tipo de estudio fue no experimental, transversal, descriptivo y correlacional. La muestra estuvo conformada por 4.822 estudiantes. Se utilizaron los resultados de las Evaluaciones de Logro referidas al Sistema Educativo Nacional (ELSEN) y del cuestionario de contexto, ambos correspondientes al Plan Nacional para la Evaluación de los Aprendizajes (PLANEA) 2017. Se hizo una revisión exhaustiva de la literatura y de ahí se derivaron los factores propuestos en un modelo teórico. Se determinó la cantidad de alumnos que sufría de violencia escolar con base en su sexo y el tipo de escuela. Fueron aplicadas las pruebas t de student y la U de Mann-Whitney para evidenciar uno de los aspectos adversos que padecían los alumnos que experimentaban violencia escolar. Fue aplicada la técnica de modelaje con ecuaciones estructurales para verificar empíricamente el modelo teórico. Entre los hallazgos, se encontró una relación directa de la Violencia con los factores Emociones, Metas, Laboral y Relaciones, e indirecta con Actitud, Padres y Bienes. En conclusión, y tomando como base los resultados arrojados y las revisiones de diferentes autores, la violencia escolar está presente, no obstante, puede ser prevenida si se toman en cuenta los factores propuestos.

Improving lives by accelerating progress towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals for adolescents living with HIV: a prospective cohort study

SummaryBackgroundLow-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) face major challenges in achieving the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for vulnerable adolescents. We aimed to test the UN Development Programme's proposed approach of development accelerators—provisions that lead to progress across multiple SDGs—and synergies between accelerators on achieving SDG-aligned targets in a highly vulnerable group of adolescents in South Africa.MethodsWe did standardised interviews and extracted longitudinal data from clinical records at baseline (2014–15) and 18-month follow-up (2016–17) for adolescents aged 10–19 years living with HIV in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. We used standardised tools to measure 11 SDG-aligned targets—antiretroviral therapy adherence, good mental health, no substance use, HIV care retention, school enrolment, school progression, no sexual abuse, no high-risk sex, no violence perpetration, no community violence, and no emotional or physical abuse. We also assessed receipt at both baseline and follow-up of six hypothesised development accelerators—government cash transfers to households, safe schools (ie, without teacher or student violence), free schools, parenting support, free school meals, and support groups. Associations of all provisions with SDG-aligned targets were assessed jointly in a multivariate path model, controlling for baseline outcomes and sociodemographic and HIV-related covariates, and adjusted for multiple outcome testing. Cumulative effects were tested by marginal effects modelling.Findings1063 (90%) of 1176 eligible adolescents were interviewed. Three provisions were shown to be development accelerators. Parenting support was associated with good mental health (odds ratio 2·13, 95% CI 1·43–3·15, p<0·0001), no high-risk sex (2·44, 1·45–5·03, p=0·005), no violence perpetration (2·59, 1·63–4·59, p<0·0001), no community violence (2·43, 1·65–3·86, p<0·0001), and no emotional or physical abuse (2·38, 1·65–3·76; p<0·0001). Cash transfers were associated with HIV care retention (1·87, 1·15–3·02, p=0·010), school progression (2·05, 1·33–3·24, p=0·003), and no emotional or physical abuse (1·76, 1·12–3·02, p=0·025). Safe schools were associated with good mental health (1·74, 1·30–2·34, p<0·0001), school progression (1·57, 1·17–2·13, p=0·004), no violence perpetration (2·02, 1·45–2·91, p<0·0001), no community violence (1·81, 1·30–2·55, p<0·0001), and no emotional or physical abuse (2·20, 1·58–3·17, p<0·0001). For five of 11 SDG-aligned targets, a combination of two or more accelerators showed cumulative positive associations, suggesting accelerator synergies of combination provisions. For example, the fitted probability of adolescents reporting no emotional or physical abuse (SDG 16.2) with no safe schools, cash transfers, or parenting support was 0·25 (0·16–0·34). With cash transfer alone it was 0·37 (0·33–0·42), with safe school alone 0·42 (0·30–0·55), and with parenting support alone 0·44 (0·30–0·59). With all three development accelerators combined, the probability of adolescents reporting no emotional or physical abuse was 0·76 (0·67–0·84). After correcting for multiple tests, four of the SDG-aligned targets (antiretroviral therapy adherence, no substance use, school enrolment, and no sexual abuse) were not associated with any hypothesised accelerators.InterpretationThe findings suggest the UN's accelerator approach for this high-risk adolescent population has policy and potential financing usefulness. Services that simultaneously promote several SDG targets, or combine to support particular targets, might be important to meet not only health-related targets, but also to ensure that adolescents in LMICs thrive within a new development framework.FundingNuffield Foundation, UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund, UKAID, Janssen Pharmaceutica, International AIDS Society, John Fell Fund, European Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council, Philip Leverhulme Trust, and UNICEF.

Exposure to Emotional Violence: Relationship between University Students according to their Demographic Characteristics

The aim of this study is to determine the level of exposure to emotional violence of university students. In addition, it was also tried to identify the relationship between the emotional violence exposure level and the variables of university students’ age, gender, whether they get psychological support before and after the university or not, and the school they attend. This research is a survey model research using quantitative data. The participants of this study are 701 (415 females and 286 males) university students who are studying in various departments in the academic year 2017-2018. The data of the study were collected with the “Emotional Violence Scale” developed within the scope of the research. SPSS 17 was used to analyze the quantitative data obtained. In order to analyze the data, Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation, t-Test, and One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used. According to the results of the analysis, it was found that the level of exposure to emotional violence of university students was low. In addition, it was concluded that male students’ exposure to emotional violence was significantly higher than that of female students. It is also concluded that the students who have been exposed to emotional violence have significant differences according to the variables; age, gender, whether they get psychological support before and after the university or not.

Student Violence Directed Against Teachers: Victimized Teachers' Reports to School Officials and Satisfaction With School Responses.

Research indicates that violence against teachers has detrimental negative effects on teachers' emotional and physical well-being, connectedness to school, job performance, and retention. However, no quantitative empirical research has been conducted to examine the extent of teacher victimization reported to school officials, school interventions to address teacher victimization, and teachers' satisfaction with school handling of victimization. To address the limitations of prior research on teacher victimization, for a sample of 1,628 teachers in a large urban county, the present research investigates the extent of teacher victimization reported to school officials and examines school responses to teacher victimization. Furthermore, two key variables (school interventions and apologies from offending students) are tested as predictors of victimized teachers' satisfaction with administrators' responses to incidents. The findings indicate that the extent of reporting victimization to school officials by victimized teachers is quite high; however, a large number of victimized teachers perceived school intervention following incidents as ineffective and inadequate. Ordinal logistic regression analyses indicate that victimized teachers who report to school officials expect offending students to be disciplined and held accountable, and when this does not occur, they are dissatisfied. Overall, the findings suggest the urgent need for school administrators to review their current disciplinary policies regarding teacher-directed violence and to establish effective protocols to prevent and properly respond to teacher victimization.

Students’ Violence against Teachers in the Arab Sector in Israel—A Case Study

The study deals qualitatively with one of the most concerning issues in contemporary education—the violence of students against teachers, a growing phenomenon that has not yet been thoroughly studied. It considers the phenomenon in question with relation to the diminishing status of the teacher’s authority, as part of the transformation in adult authority. The theoretical framework presents information on students’ violence against teachers at schools, while criticizing the incompetent coping with the phenomenon. In the methodological section, we present the interviews section and the list of questions we asked interviewees, such as: what types of violence are common in the school? What are the characteristics of the violent student? The findings describe the school where the research was conducted, and analyze the teachers’ responses, while at the discussion summarizing the prominent points addressed by the interviews, to establish an applied model for dealing with the phenomenon at schools.

Consenting to Conflict

Consenting to Conflict Corrinne Harol (bio) and Teresa Zackodnik (bio) "We need to think about this in terms of harm and harm reduction." –Tarana Burke, founder of the MeToo movement1 We work in a longstanding feminist and majority white department with a history of feminist chairs; a strong profile in women's writing, feminist theory, and queer theory and writing; and a non-hierarchical ethos that regards students as junior colleagues.2 Corrinne has been working in the department for fourteen years and Teresa for twenty-two; we are cisgender, heterosexual, white settlers from working-class backgrounds. We are both committed to feminist scholarship and pedagogy, and we have been grateful to the department for hiring us and supporting those commitments. The department also has a long history of consensual relationships between instructors and students, and our department is not unique in this. The prevalence of faculty-student relationships—and their potential for both happy unions and detrimental effects on individuals and the learning climate—is fairly well established.3 Although neither of us has direct experience with consensual instructor-student relations, we each have experience with a range of specific harms that sex and power create in learning environments, and we are both survivors of sexual abuse.4 We have had students disclose violence, assault, and harassment to us, disclosures that recount both individual harms and harm to the learning environment.5 One of us also has experience with being sexually harassed in the department, and we both have experienced retaliatory behavior when attempting to address the harm caused by harassment disclosed to us by students. Like many others who receive such disclosures, in our university and elsewhere, we found the institutional process for receiving and dealing with disclosures to be confusing, and we were troubled by the additional harm that a formal complaint and an investigation cause to students who have already been harmed.6 In 2017, our university adopted a new sexual violence policy, which defines sexual violence capaciously, is student-centered, is based in affirmative consent, and is designed to make disclosures and complaints less harmful to students.7 All units on campus were called upon to educate and organize themselves in order to act on their professional responsibilities regarding the new policy. We proposed the creation of an ad-hoc departmental committee tasked with responding to the policy, given the [End Page 205] following: 1) we teach every student on campus through a required first-year course; 2) we often teach texts that represent sex and sexual violence; and 3) like any university department, we have had our own problems with sexual violence. Our department unanimously endorsed the creation of this committee. Working on this committee was a positive experience—even a peak academic service experience—because it was collaborative, respectful, non-hierarchical, committed to doing difficult work, and most importantly driven by students.8 The committee discussed and undertook a number of initiatives, including education on sexual violence for faculty and students; an investigation of whether such education should be part of our first-year curriculum; workshops on how to receive disclosures; and focus groups on departmental climate. The issue that students felt most strongly about and that we spent the most time on was instructor-student relations. The university's new sexual violence policy permits consensual relations with the understanding that consent must be affirmative and ongoing and that consent cannot be "obtained through the abuse of a position of power, trust or authority."9 Consensual instructor-student relationships are governed by the university's Conflict of Interest (COI) policy, which is meant to manage and reduce the potential harm of the power imbalances inherent when an instructor, supervisor, committee member, or administrator is also a student's sexual partner.10 However, the university's COI policy only references consensual instructor-student relationships with the phrase "personal benefit," a vague catch-all that no one except those writing university policy understand to refer to instructor-student relationships.11 The committee realized that allowing consensual relations without a clear COI policy to address them meant that a student's affirmative consent to a sexual relationship was made to bear the larger burdens of...

The Relationship Between Exposure to Community Violence and Depression in Junior Middle Students: The Mediating Role of Self-concept

Exposure to community violence; Depression; Self-concept

Asociación entre violencia, estrés y rendimiento académico en alumnos de medicina del primer y sexto años de una universidad pública, 2017

Introducción. Existen reportes nacionales e internacionales de presencia de estrés en estudiantes de medicina, mayor que en otras carreras profesionales; asimismo, la presencia de estrés se encuentra relacionada a bajo rendimiento académico. Objetivo. Determinar si existe asociación entre violencia, estrés y el rendimiento académico de los alumnos de primer y sexto año de medicina de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Métodos. Se encuestó a 109 (47%) alumnos del 6to año, y 122 (53%) alumnos del 1er año. La percepción de violencia y estrés se determinaron con instrumentos validados; el rendimiento académico se determinó mediante el promedio ponderado anual. Se utilizó la prueba U de Mann Whitney para establecer diferencias entre las medias de las variables cuantitativas. Para establecer la correlación entre las variables de estudio se utilizó el coeficiente de correlación de Spearman. Valores p&lt;0,05 se consideraron como significativos. Resultados. La percepción de violencia fue mayor en estudiantes de 6to año. Se estableció correlación positiva entre el estrés y violencia en estudiantes de 6to año. Conclusión. En ambos grupos estudiados se determinó percepción de violencia, mayor en estudiantes de 6to año. La correlación entre violencia y estrés fue significativa sólo en los estudiantes de 6to año. No hubo asociación significativa del estrés y violencia con el rendimiento académico.

Social Status and the Effects of Legal Concealed Firearms on College Campuses

Research consistently shows that students and faculty are generally against expanding access to firearms on campus, and many stakeholders worry about the effects of campus carry laws on student violence, civility, and feelings of safety. We contribute to this literature by investigating how potential changes to campus carry policies affect students’ reported commitment to campus activities. Theories explaining fear of crime and social commitment led to hypotheses that predict members of socially disadvantaged groups—specifically women and minority students—would report less favorable attitudes toward gun possession on campus, greater feelings of vulnerability to victimization, and less commitment to the college environment when students or staff may possess guns. Hypotheses received support, and add to the growing literature documenting potential issues that legislators, administrators, and faculty might consider when debating the enactment of campus carry policies.

Violencia psicológica en la relación de noviazgo en estudiantes universitarios mendocinos (Argentina)

Objetivo: describir las características de la violencia psicológica en las relaciones de noviazgo, respecto a su percepción, modalidades y respuesta hacia la misma, en estudiantes de la Facultad de Psicología de la Universidad del Aconcagua. Materiales y métodos: investigación cuantitativa, estudio descriptivo, diseño transversal con encuestas. Muestra intencional de 452 alumnos de las carreras Licenciatura en Psicología y Licenciatura en Niñez, Adolescencia y Familia, ambos sexos, edad promedio de 22 años, que hubieran mantenido o que mantuvieran en ese momento una relación de noviazgo. Instrumento: Cuestionario de Violencia Psicológica en las Relaciones de Noviazgo (Marchiori, Lucientes de Funes, Puente de Camaño y Bordón, 2013). Resultados: presencia, en frecuencias que van desde ocasionalmente hasta siempre, de veintitrés conductas o actitudes de la violencia psicológica en las relaciones de noviazgo. La conducta más frecuente en las relaciones de noviazgo de los participantes fue el Oposicionismo (72,1%) y la menos frecuente la Amenaza de muerte (3,1%). El 56% de los participantes experimentaron angustia ante la ocurrencia de tales conductas o actitudes, el 50% tristeza y el 49% enojo. Se encontraron diferencias entre las emociones más experimentadas por los hombres y mujeres de la muestra; también en lo que respecta a las conductas o actitudes que refieren recibir de parte de sus parejas hacia ellas o ellos. Conclusiones: Las conductas o actitudes de la violencia psicológica en las relaciones de noviazgo han afectado a los participantes; y este tipo de violencia es considerado, mayormente, como un problema de pareja y en menor medida como un problema social.

Negative self-perceived health associated with school violence in adolescents.

To verify the association between negative self-perception of health and school violence in adolescent students of the Municipality of Olinda (PE), Brazil. This is a cross-sectional, analytical and school-based study with a sample consisting of 2,614 adolescents selected through a strategy of random sampling in conglomerates. The information was obtained through the questionnaire "Youth Risk Behavior Survey" from which the issues of violence and self-perceived health were retrieved. Data were tabulated by Epi-data version 3.1 program and transcribed for SPSS version 22. The Chi-square test and the stepwise binary logistic regression model were used for data analysis. We observed that 26.7% of adolescents had a negative self-perception of health, and this was greater among girls. Concerning school violence, negative self-perception was associated with feelings of sadness, suicidal thoughts, bullying at school, robbery at school and safety at school. Gender and age were also associated (p < 0.05). We reinforce the need for culture and peace actions in adolescence, involving the school environment to reflect on poor health assessed by adolescents and reduce the rate of violence.

‘The Social factors associated with student violence against teachers and administrators: A field study on high schools eastern sector of Ahsaa: العوامل الاجتماعية المرتبطة بالعنف الطلابي ضد المعلمين والإداريين - دراسة ميدانية على ثانويات القطاع الشرقي بالإحساء-

The current study tries determining social factors associated with student violence against teachers and administrators the Secondary schools of eastern sector at Ahsa. It targeted to identify the nature of student violence against teachers and administrators, that to identify the student's motivation to make practice violence against a teacher or administrative, and learn about the social factors that lead to student violence against teachers and administrators. This study is the descriptive, through using social survey methodology intentional sample Statistics practitioners student violence against teachers and administrators at public school became the size of the sample (144) of (3350), as well as a simple intentional sample of teachers and administrators managers, agents and counselors and administrative assistants, at government School itself to become the size of the sample (58) teacher, three (3) directors, (3) three students guiders, and (3) of assistant staff from (290) teacher, (14) and director (14) guider and (15) a student counselor. This study found a set of results that tried to answer the questions of the study. the results were (47%) of violence against the teachers is orally, (22%) symbolic , (48%) inside the classroom ,(38%) in the end of school day. the study put forward numbers of recommendations that can be guided by experts and specialists, and decision- makers on the subject of the current.

Impulse Control Difficulties and Hostility Toward Women as Predictors of Relationship Violence Perpetration in an Undergraduate Male Sample.

Relationship violence in college students continues to be an important social problem. Prior research has identified several risk factors for relationship violence including trauma exposure, impulse control difficulties, and hostility toward women; however, previous research assessing these variables has mainly focused on bivariate relationships, with little work attempting to connect multiple correlates to relationship violence while utilizing a theoretical, interactive approach. The purpose of this study was to simultaneously examine several correlates of relationship violence (i.e., hostility toward women, trauma exposure, and impulse control difficulties), and to examine male perpetration of relationship violence among a sample of male college students using a cross-sectional design. It was hypothesized that among men in this sample, hostility toward women and trauma exposure would moderate the relationship between impulse control difficulties and relationship violence. The findings suggested that college-aged men, who have high impulse control difficulties, high hostility toward women, and who have multiple trauma exposures, may be more likely to perpetrate relationship violence against a female intimate partner than those who are low in impulse control difficulties, report low levels of hostility toward women, or report fewer or no trauma exposures. Thus, the current study suggests that exposure to trauma predisposes men with specific attributes to relationship violence, which may provide a treatment target for future intervention programs.