Violation Of Autonomy Research Articles

Healthcare workers’ perspectives on mandatory influenza vaccination: a scoping review

Background: Vaccination is efficacious at preventing influenza disease transmission, morbidity and mortality. Benefits of influenza vaccination for healthcare workers (HCW) are emphasized, yet vaccine uptake among HCW remains suboptimal. Mandatory vaccination programs may increase influenza vaccine uptake, however, attitudes and beliefs of HCW towards these mandates are not well known. Aims: This scoping review examined the attitudes and beliefs of HCW to ascertain the barriers and enablers to the implementation and acceptance of mandatory vaccination programs in healthcare settings. Design: Scoping review, guided by the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews. Methods: Literature published between 2019 and 2023 was reviewed from five electronic databases, between June and October 2023. Data sources: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods studies were obtained. Studies were limited to full-text English articles, published within peer-reviewed journals over the last five years. Data were extracted by both authors and documented using a modified version of the JBI’s scoping review data extraction instrument, and analyzed thematically. Results: The original search yielded 319 articles. Forty-two articles were screened, with 10 studies included. Most HCW had negative views towards mandatory influenza vaccination, influenced by geographical location, age and discipline. The protection of patients and affordability/accessibility of vaccination were described as enablers to the acceptance of mandatory measures. The belief that mandatory vaccination was a violation of autonomy and misconceptions concerning influenza transmission, vaccine mechanism of action, side effects and effectiveness, were described as common barriers. Conclusions: Health services must carefully consider the context in which mandatory vaccination programs are implemented and employ strategies that incorporate education and promote vaccine accessibility, affordability and HCW autonomy. The quality of evidence retrieved was moderate to poor, with high heterogeneity between studies. Minimal Australian research was evident, limiting the generalisability of findings. These results should be interpreted with caution and further high-quality research is recommended.

Panopticon on Mars

Our advancing technologies should soon enable us to leave Earth and start a new, extraterrestrial life, perhaps on Mars. Although it has been suggested that it is unethical to go and conquer planets we are not made for, this can be avoided by implementing new ethical norms. It can also be argued that we can prevent ethically questionable methods of striving towards our new way of living by technological means, and also by building a new type of society. The main ethical dilemmas that humanity will face on Mars are discussed and a new concept that answers many ethical questions, and which could potentially make human life on Mars less vulnerable, is presented. Panopticon is a disciplinary concept which enables the form of central observation. Not entirely ethical on Earth, it could serve as a good compromise for living in a small society in extraterrestrial and lethal conditions. It seems reasonable that humans can practice virtue ethics on Mars and that an up-dated Panopticon concept can preserve humanity. The Panopticon provides a social mechanism for the very first Martian spaceship, a safe haven that complies with all the ethical considerations avoiding violation of autonomy, bodily autonomy, liberty, and freedom of movement. Consequently, this new social model could help prevent tyranny and other forms of injustice on Mars. Panopticon technology should also enable people who cannot afford to pay for a flight to Mars to participate. Keywords: Panopticon, Freedom of Movement, Liberty, Autonomy,Tyranny, Virtue Ethics

Are Savior Siblings a Special Case in Procreative Ethics?

In this paper we examine three categories of reasons that have been given against the creation of savior siblings (harm to the child, autonomy violations, and effects on wider society) and argue that all can be defeated. We then outline the conditions under which the practice is morally permissible and argue that these conditions are no different from those under which it is ever morally permissible to procreate. Our surprising conclusion is that savior siblings do not present a special case in procreative ethics and it is permissible to create them whenever it is permissible to create any other child.

Tibet’s response to state nationalism: Utilising China’s fear of secession

AbstractTaking document analysis as its method, this paper examines the Tibetans’ response to the Chinese state nationalism. Due to the fear of political secession, the Chinese government has stayed silent about the Tibetans’ right to self‐determination and subjected regional ethnic autonomy to the centralised political system. The Chinese authorities continue to dismiss the Tibetans’ nationalist struggles as an imported foreign design and warn the international community not to sympathise with the Dalai Lama and his supporters. Amidst an adverse national and international political environment, the Tibetans have managed to sustain their nationalist wishes and obtain substantive international attention. Taking this background into account, this paper explores how the Tibetans have succeeded to resist China's state nationalism and position themselves as a champion of inclusion, justice, and minority rights. It argues that the Tibetans recognise the Chinese government’s fear of secession and utilise that fear to forward their nationalist aspirations. The Tibetans shift their demand from independence to autonomy and highlight their own desire for recognition as a distinct community within the Chinese state. This strategy has helped them to claim that they are against the violations of autonomy but not against the Chinese state’s territorial norms.

Accusing the opponent of divinity violations in intergroup conflicts: Bystander reactions to harmfulness and underdog status as a function of the autonomy–divinity discrepancy

We experimentally investigated psychological responses of bystanders to violations of moral codes to find out why divinity violations may be more effective for gaining victimhood status than autonomy violations in real-world intergroup conflicts. In particular, we considered how anger versus disgust responses are differentially invoked by violations of autonomy versus divinity ethics. Two experiments compared autonomy versus divinity violations in interaction with two other parameters known to produce different effects: level of harm (Experiment 1) and differential intergroup power (Experiment 2). Overall, we found support for the proposed dissociation in anger versus disgust responses to autonomy versus divinity violations in a way that the anger responses to autonomy violations were amplified but disgust responses to divinity violations were not affected when the moral violation was more harmful and the perpetrator was more powerful than the victim. We discuss the implications of the cognitive processes involved in considering autonomy versus divinity violations, and the functionality for parties to intergroup conflict of accusing the opponent of divinity violations.

On Artificial Intelligence and Manipulation

The increasing diffusion of novel digital and online sociotechnical systems for arational behavioral influence based on Artificial Intelligence (AI), such as social media, microtargeting advertising, and personalized search algorithms, has brought about new ways of engaging with users, collecting their data and potentially influencing their behavior. However, these technologies and techniques have also raised concerns about the potential for manipulation, as they offer unprecedented capabilities for targeting and influencing individuals on a large scale and in a more subtle, automated and pervasive manner than ever before. This paper, provides a narrative review of the existing literature on manipulation, with a particular focus on the role of AI and associated digital technologies. Furthermore, it outlines an account of manipulation based of four key requirements: intentionality, asymmetry of outcome, non-transparency and violation of autonomy. I argue that while manipulation is not a new phenomenon, the pervasiveness, automaticity, and opacity of certain digital technologies may raise a new type of manipulation, called “digital manipulation”. I call “digital manipulation” any influence exerted through the use of digital technology that is intentionally designed to bypass reason and to produce an asymmetry of outcome between the data processor (or a third party that benefits thereof) and the data subject. Drawing on insights from psychology, sociology, and computer science, I identify key factors that can make manipulation more or less effective, and highlight the potential risks and benefits of these technologies for individuals and society. I conclude that manipulation through AI and associated digital technologies is not qualitatively different from manipulation through human–human interaction in the physical world. However, some functional characteristics make it potentially more likely of evading the subject’s cognitive defenses. This could increase the probability and severity of manipulation. Furthermore, it could violate some fundamental principles of freedom or entitlement related to a person’s brain and mind domain, hence called neurorights. To this end, an account of digital manipulation as a violation of the neuroright to cognitive liberty is presented.

Factors of endangering and violation of autonomy in residential nursing homes: results of ascoping review

Respecting autonomy is one of the guiding principles of medical and nursing ethics. Nursing home residents represent aparticularly relevant target group whose autonomy can be endangered or violated. The study aimed to identify factors that endanger or violate the nursing home residents' autonomy and to determine specific life situations and contexts in which these factors are located. Ascoping review was carried out according to the Joanna Briggs Institute-method. Empirical results from journal articles from the publication period 2000-2021 were included. The articles were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Atotal of 75articles were finally included in the review. Identified factors of the endangerment and violation of autonomy are assigned to topic areas located at the level of actors, (care) relationships and structures. Factors that can violate or endanger the residents' autonomy were found in the entire everyday life of the residents. The localization of the identified endangerments/violations on various actor and structural levels indicates the need for comprehensive preservation and promotion of residents' autonomy in nursing homes.

Is purity a distinct and homogeneous domain in moral psychology?

"No" is our answer to the question in our title. In moral psychology, a purity violation (defined as an immoral act committed against one's own body or soul) was theorized to be a homogeneous moral domain qualitatively distinct from other moral domains. In contrast, we hypothesized heterogeneity rather than homogeneity, overlapping rather than distinct domains, and quantitative rather than qualitative differences from other hypothesized domains (specifically, autonomy, which is harm to others). Purity has been said to consist of norms violations of which elicit disgust and taint the soul. Here we empirically examined homogeneity: whether violations of body (e.g., eating putrid food) belong in the same moral domain as violations of the soul unrelated to bodily health (e.g., selling one's soul, desecrating sacred books). We examined distinctness: whether reactions to purity violations differ in predicted ways from those to violations of autonomy. In four studies (the last preregistered), American Internet users (in Studies 2 and 4, classified as politically conservative or liberal; Ns = 80, 96, 1,312, 376) were given stories about violations based on prior studies. Nonhealth purity violations were rated as relatively more disgusting, but less gross (the lay term for the reaction to putrid things) and more likely to taint the soul than were health-related ones. Surprisingly, both health and nonhealth purity violations were typically judged as only slightly immoral if at all. Autonomy violations were rated as more disgusting and tainting of the soul than were purity violations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Tlacoqualli in Monequi "The Center Good"

Tlacoqualli in Monequi "The Center Good"

Potentially under-recognized late-stage physical and psychosexual complications of non-therapeutic neonatal penile circumcision: a qualitative and quantitative analysis of self-reports from an online community forum.

The removal of non-pathogenic foreskin from the penis of healthy neonates and infants for non-religious reasons is routinely practiced in many parts of the world. High level data from well-designed randomized controlled trials of circumcision in neonates and infants does not guide clinical practice. Reliable counts of immediate and short term circumcision complications are difficult to estimate. Emerging evidence suggests routine neonatal circumcision could lead to long term psychological, physical, and sexual complications in some men. The stigma associated with discussing circumcision complications creates a prevalence paradox where the presence of significant circumcision complications is higher than reported. Prior to the Internet, there were very few forums for men from diverse communities, who were troubled about their circumcision status, to discuss and compare stories. To investigate the long term consequences of circumcision, we reviewed 135 posts from 109 individual users participating in a circumcision grief subsection of Reddit, an internet discussion board. We identified three major categories of complications: physical such as pain during erections and lost sensitivity, psychological such as anxiety and violation of autonomy, and sexual such as feeling that the sexual experience was negatively altered or being unable to complete a sexual experience. We also identified a "discovery process" where some men described coming into awareness of their circumcision status. These findings suggest that neonatal circumcision can have significant adverse consequences for adult men. The removal of normal foreskin tissue should be limited to adult men who choose the procedure for cosmetic reasons or when medically indicated.

On judging the morality of suicide

The theory that suicide violates the moral domain of purity, whereas homicide violates the qualitatively different domain of autonomy, rests in part on the hypothesis that suicide, but not homicide, elicits disgust in a witness, taints the perpetrator's soul, and is judged immoral in a way relatively insensitive to the perpetrator's intention. In six studies (N = 320; 640; 320; 417 [pre-registered]; 320; 105), suicide failed to show these hypothesized markers of purity in the way predicted: Suicide elicited more sadness than disgust or grossed out. Suicide was judged immoral, tainting to the soul, and disgusting; but homicide was all of those things, only more so. Both suicide and homicide were equally responsive to intention. Judged immorality was correlated with the reported amount of disgust elicited for a case of suicide but also for violations of autonomy and community.

When judging purity norm violations, the perpetrator's intention matters

AbstractJudgments about the morality of an act that harms another (an autonomy violation) depend on the perpetrator's intention, but judgments about an impure act (a purity violation) have little to do with the perpetrator's intention—or so it has been theorized. In contrast, our hypothesis, supported here in three studies of American internet users, is that the perpetrator's intention matters greatly in both domains. In two studies (N = 120 in each), the perpetrator's specific intention (benign, pernicious, or unspecified) significantly and substantially influenced moral judgments of impure acts. In a third study (N = 825) of morality judgments, intention weighed at least as much for purity as for autonomy violations: reasoning about perpetrator's intention decided whether both autonomy and purity violations were judged to be moral or immoral. In morality, intention matters.

Moral expertise without moral elitism.

Skepticism about ethical expertise has grown common, raising concerns that bioethicists' roles are inappropriate or depend on something other than expertise in ethics. While these roles may depend on skills other than those of expertise, overlooking the role of expertise in ethics distorts our conception of moral advising. This paper argues that motivations to reject ethical expertise often stem from concerns about elitism: either an intellectualist elitism, where some privileged elite have supposedly special access in virtue of expertise in moral theory; or an authoritarian elitism, where our reliance on experts in ethics risks violation of autonomy and democracy. The paper sketches an anti-elitist conception of ethics expertise in bioethics as continuous with an anti-elitist conception of ethics expertise in common moral practice, undercutting the intellectualism, and then uses this anti-elitist conception to reject arguments that ethical expertise violates autonomy or democracy. An anti-elitist picture of ethical expertise both renders it consistent with our general moral practice and allows us to resist skeptical concerns.

“A Superior Anthropological Perspective.” On Kant’s Anthropo-cosmological Conception of Ideal

The topic of the ideal, that is, the topic of the possible or impossible human attainment of the absolute is ascribed divergent treatments throughout Kant’s work. Namely, it is either promptly accepted as possible by the critical Kant, and seen as something attainable by a means other than an infinite approximation (which would indeed imply a violation of autonomy, but denies the genuineness of the ideal), or it is rejected as impossible by the non-critical Kant, that is, it is seen as something attainable only through an infinite approximation (which would involve an unconditional acceptance of heteronomy, but safeguards the authenticity of an aspiration to the ideal). Yet, the topic of the ideal receives a new, if not conciliatory, at least mutually explanatory approach in Kant’s Anthropology. Here – such is our proposition – Kant proposes a terminus medius between both conceptions of ideal, insofar as he is led to ponder on the mutual benefits of an autonomic possibility and an heteronomic impossibility of an infinite progression in thought; something which Kant proposes under the form of an almost-infinite, or an almost perennial, yet finite duration, to be endured until the attainment of an almost unreachable, yet indeed reachable practical ideal. A terminus medius which, we hope to prove, is none other than that at the root of Kant’s proposition of Pragmatic Anthropology as a mediating science in Kant’s fundamental scheme of human knowledges, and which therefore may be ultimately seen as the embodiment of Kant’s anthropo-cosmological, or indeed cosmopolitical dimension of thought, as expressed in Kant’s political and/or historical writings.

Rethinking the right to health: Ableism and the binary between individual and collective rights.

While universal healthcare provisions are the global norm rather than the exception, the United States exists in the latter category. The paradox remains that while the right to health is both increasingly implemented and recognized on a global scale, the United States seems to run farther away from the arguments and global examples that might pave its way. I suggest that an understanding of the imposition of healthcare as "coercive," and hence as an impingement on individual agency, activates its criticism as an inhibition of freedom that in turn motivates the libertarianism at the heart of the dominant, market-based approach to health insurance provisions. At least one of the underlying assumptions of this view is that universal healthcare would impose or impinge on individual rights, and that such an impingement is a violation of autonomy. In this article, I aim to challenge this assumption by suggesting that the pitting of individual health rights against collective burdens stems in part from a related assumption of general health or welfare on the part of the collective: that disability and debility alike are anomalies or anomalous to the general health of the population. In other words, it will be my contention that individual health rights are only at odds with "collective rights" when the collective is perceived to be able-bodied.

The Incidence and Nature of Claims against Dentists Related to Periodontal Treatment in Israel during the Years 2005-2019.

Background: In recent years, worldwide dental malpractice claims have dramatically increased. The purpose of the present study is to analyze periodontal therapy related claims in Israel that led to legal decisions. Methods: This retrospective cohort study includes malpractice claims against dental practitioners related to periodontology between 2005 and 2019. Only closed cases where a final decision was made were included. The chi-square test or Fisher exact test for categorical variables were performed and a p value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: During the study period there were 508 legal claims related to periodontal disease. Most plaintiffs were women (63.4%), and 71.3% of the patients were >35 years old. Most claims (82.8%) were settled out of court and ended in compromise. Claims concerning the treatment of periodontal disease by periodontists accounted only for 4.5% (23/508) of the cases while 95.5% (485/508) of the claims were for complications secondary to another treatment. Prosthodontic treatment was involved with the highest number 54.5%, followed by dental implants 17.7%, and endodontics 11.6%. The allegations were related to pain and distress (84.8%), aggravation of existent periodontal disease (83.3%), tooth loss (78.1%), and violation of autonomy (47%). Conclusions: The main cause for lawsuits was related to aggravation of periodontal disease during prosthetic or implant therapy and related to suspected faulty or inexistent preoperative diagnosis and planning. Practical implications: Periodontal consultation before dental treatment may reduce malpractice risks, adverse events, and un-necessary changes of treatment plans.

The Incidence and Nature of Malpractice Claims against Dentists for Orthodontic Treatment with Periodontal Damage in Israel during the Years 2005-2018-A Descriptive Study.

In recent years, dental malpractice claims have increased dramatically worldwide. The purpose of the present study is to analyze claims related to orthodontic treatment involving periodontal problems that resulted in legal decisions in Israel. This study analyzed legal claims registered by Medical Consultants International (MCI) between 2005 and 2018. Only closed cases of orthodontic claims involving periodontal problems in which a decision was made were included. The parameters studied included patients’ demographic data, the main reasons of the claim, and complications. Statistical significance was found for aesthetic damage, which was more common in claims of females (p = 0.035) and in older claims (p = 0.004); tooth damage was more common in claims of older patients (p = 0.032); violation of autonomy was higher in private practice (p = 0.047) and in more recent claims (p = 0.001). As orthodontic treatment is becoming more popular in older patients, and as lawsuit claims become more common in recent years, the orthodontists should always analyze and document the periodontal status of their patients before and during treatment in order to maintain professional practice and avoid future claims.

Highway to (Digital) Surveillance: When Are Clients Coerced to Share Their Data with Insurers?

Clients may feel trapped into sharing their private digital data with insurance companies to get a desired insurance product or premium. However, private insurance must collect some data to offer products and premiums appropriate to the client’s level of risk. This situation creates tension between the value of privacy and common insurance business practice. We argue for three main claims: first, coercion to share private data with insurers is pro tanto wrong because it violates the autonomous choice of a privacy-valuing client. Second, we maintain that irrespective of being coerced, the choice of accepting digital surveillance by insurers makes it harder for the client to protect his or her autonomy (and to act spontaneously and authentically). The violation of autonomy also makes coercing customers into digital surveillance pro tanto morally wrong. Third, having identified an economically plausible process involving no direct coercion by insurers, leading to the adoption of digital surveillance, we argue that such an outcome generates further threats against autonomy. This threat provides individuals with a pro tanto reason to prevent this process. We highlight the freedom dilemma faced by regulators who aim to prevent this outcome by constraining market freedoms and argue for the need for further moral and empirical research on this question.

Autonomy

Personal autonomy is a constitutive element of all rights. It confers upon a right-holder the power to decide whether, and under what circumstances, to exercise her right. Every right infringement thus invariably involves a violation of its holder’s autonomy. The autonomy violation consists of the deprivation of a right-holder of a choice that was rightfully hers – the choice as to how to go about her life. Harms resulting from the right’s infringement and from the autonomy violation are often readily distinguishable, as is the case when someone uses the property of a right-holder without securing her permission or, worse, causes her bodily injury. At other times, however, the two harms overlap, as in the case when a right-holder is unlawfully barred from exercising her free speech right or is denied the right to vote. Furthermore, the autonomy harm may sometimes exceed the physical harm sustained by the victim, as is the case in many sexual harassment incidents. At other times, however, the victim’s physical harm or economic loss will outweigh the autonomy harm, as is often the case in automobile accidents. Even though autonomy violations are omnipresent, and the harm resulting from them can be severe, the law rarely recognizes a cause of action for violations of autonomy, nor does it provide redress for autonomy harms. The current legal approach to autonomy protection can best be characterized as anomalous and unprincipled. Therefore, from a normative perspective, it is untenable. In this article, we set out to make three novel theoretical and doctrinal contributions. First, we advance a comprehensive jurisprudential account of the relationship between rights and autonomy. Second, we show why existing law should be replaced with a legal regime that respects and protects individual autonomy in all cases. Finally, we develop a remedial framework designed to address autonomy violations. Mindful of administrability constraints, we incorporate three limitations to ensure that our proposal does not overwhelm the court system: (a) suits for autonomy violations would only be allowed when the plaintiff has a cause of action originating from the defendant’s infringement of her recognized legal right; (b) any such suit would undergo a strict de minimis scrutiny; and (c) no double recovery would be allowed in cases in which the plaintiff’s autonomy harm is subsumed in her physical or economic loss.

A Public Law Review of Audit action for the Prevention of Corruption

부패방지를 위한 법제도적 수단으로 감사제도는 검·경과 법원에 의한 형사처벌보다 더욱 효과적인 수단으로 평가될 수 있다. 부패의 문제가 형사법의 위반보다 행정법의 위반과 그로 인한 행정제재가 동원되어야 할 상황이 더욱 많기 때문이며, 또 형사처벌이 적발·처벌에 그치는 반면 감사제도를 통해서는 행정제도 및 행정관행의 시정까지 기대할 수 있기 때문이다. 특히, 성과감사를 시행하여 경제성, 효율성 그리고 효과성에 대한 통제가 가능한 것은 감사제도가 가지는 특유의 장점이라 할 수 있다. 행정법 영역에서 모든 행정작용의 하자는 위법과 부당으로 구분된다. 한편 행정작용 중 처분은 기속행위와 재량행위로 구분되는데 기속행위에는 위법의 문제가 발생할 뿐 부당의 문제는 발생하지 아니하며 재량행위의 경우에는 위법과 부당의 문제 모두 발생한다. 이 같은 행정행위에 있어서의 하자론은 감사의 내용에 있어서 합법성 감사와 합목적성(성과) 감사와 연관된다. 즉, 합법성 감사는 기속행위에만 가능하며 재량행위에는 합법성 감사와 성과감사가 동시에 가능하다. 그러나 재량행위에 있어서도 위법성의 범주가 큰 바, 실제 성과감사가 행정처분에서 차지하는 범주가 많지 않다. 그러나 성과감사는 행정처분이 아닌 행정작용에서 실제적으로 기능을 할 수가 있으며, 이와 같은 상황에서는 처분의 위법성을 행정쟁송으로써 그 시정을 구하고 자신에게 닥칠 수 있는 손해를 구제할 수 있는 기회를 가지지 못하는 경우에도 감사를 동원하여 부패와 연관된 행정작용의 통제가 가능할 것이다. 지방자치단체에 대한 감사는 내부감사인 자체감사와 국가 기관에 의한 외부감사가 중첩되어 시행되고 있다. 그러나 지방자치단체가 수행하는 지방의 고유사무인 자치사무에 대해서도 감사원의 경우 합법성 감사와 더불어 합목적성 감사까지 시행하고 있는데 이는 부패방지라는 측면에서 중첩적으로 시행되는 감사가 실효적일 수 있으나 감사자치권을 향유하는 지방자치의 측면에서는 자치권 침해의 소지도 있다. 감사기관의 소속 문제는 공정하고 객관적인 감사사무의 수행을 통한 부패문제의 해결이라는 측면에서 그 논의가 필요하다. 여기에는 감사기관을 의회로 소속시키자는 주장과 독립기관화 하자는 주장이 있으나, 의회로 소속될 경우 감사결과의 정치적 해석이 문제될 수 있고, 독립기관화 했을 때는 과연 정치적 권력의 기반이 전혀 없는 감사기관으로부터의 감사결과가 유효하게 관철될 수 있는가의 문제가 제기될 수 있다.The audit system can be evaluated as a more effective means than criminal punishment by the prosecution, police and the court as a legal and institutional means to prevent corruption. Because it is the unique advantage of the audit system that the performance audit can be conducted to control economic feasibility, efficiency and effectiveness. The performance audit can actually function in administrative disposition, not administrative action. Even if the illegality of the disposition does not have the opportunity to seek rectification by sending administrative disputes to remedy the damage that may befall him, the audit will be mobilized to control the administrative actions associated with corruption. The audit of local governments is conducted by overlapping internal audits and external audits by state agencies. However, the Board of Audit and Inspection of Korea also conducts an audit of the legitimacy and validity of local autonomous affairs, which are unique to local governments. This may be effective in overlapping audits in terms of anti-corruption, but in terms of local autonomy enjoying audit autonomy, it may also be a violation of autonomy. The issue of belonging to an audit agency needs to be discussed in terms of resolving the corruption issue through the performance of fair and objective audit work. There are arguments to have an audit agency affiliated with Congress and to become an independent agency, but there can be questions about the political interpretation of the audit results if it belongs to Congress, and whether the audit results from an audit agency that has no basis for political power can be effectively carried out when it is an independent agency.