Vineyard Age Research Articles

Biodiversity and Vegetation Succession in Vineyards, Moravia (Czech Republic)

Maintaining biodiversity in agricultural landscapes is a major challenge for environmental protection in Europe. Vineyards rely heavily on agrotechnical interventions such as herbicide use and tillage for weed control, which affect biodiversity and can lead to soil erosion and resistant weed populations. The fragmentation of agricultural landscapes affects biodiversity by altering community composition and often reducing plant population sizes and genetic diversity. However, it can also increase the abundance of certain species and enhance population resilience to environmental change. Vineyards can support high levels of biodiversity and provide ecosystem services due to their semi-natural habitat structure. This research evaluates vegetation biodiversity using phytosociological relevés in different vineyards. Our results show that species richness and biodiversity are significantly influenced by vineyard age and management type. This study highlights differences in the representation of plant functional groups, with perennial taxa in grassy inter-row contributing to anti-erosion functions and serving as food sources for pollinators. The root zone around vine trunks shows an increase in invasive species with vineyard age, posing a risk to the agroecosystem. Vineyards predominantly follow a ruderal ecological strategy, using nutrients and light efficiently, while tolerating management disturbances. Understanding these dynamics is critical for developing sustainable vineyard management practices that support biodiversity and ecological resilience, counteract the homogenization of agricultural landscapes, and promote the coexistence of viticulture and species-rich ecosystems.

A systematic survey on prevalence of grapevine trunk disease pathogens in Oregon vineyards.

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are found in vineyards worldwide and can be caused by different fungal pathogens. To characterize types of GTDs in Oregon vineyards, and how the GTD pathogens' prevalence is affected by two geographical regions, a survey was conducted in which grapevine trunk samples were collected from 15 and 14 wine grape (Vitis vinifera) vineyards in southern and northern Oregon respectively. Fungal species were identified through culture and PCR based methods. GTD pathogens that were identified included Botryosphaeriaceae spp. and Phaeoacremonium spp. from 72 and 21% of the surveyed vineyards respectively; Phaeomoniella chlamydospora, Cryptovalsa ampelina, Truncatella angustata, Seimatosporium lichenicola, Hormonema viticola from 7% of the surveyed vineyards; and Dactylonectria macrodidyma, and Pestaloptiopsis sp. from 3% of the surveyed vineyards. Pathogens were identified in both regions and in young and mature vineyards. The presence of GTD from the Botryosphaeria dieback complex was significantly affected by regions (P=0.021) with pathogens being significantly more abundant in Willamette Valley (northern region) compared to Rogue Valley (southern region) vineyards. Some differences among other tested variables such as vineyard age, cultivars, rootstocks, and pruning methods were observed for all disease complexes; however the differences were not statistically significant. Our study summarizes that Botryosphaeria dieback and Esca disease complexes are the most prevalent diseases infecting grapevines in Oregon vineyards and management practices need to be geared towards these economically important diseases. In addition, pathogens from other disease complexes are also present suggesting a need for regular disease monitoring and following practices to limit the spread of these pathogens.

Accumulation patterns and health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in the topsoil of two sloping vineyards (Tokaj-Hegyalja, Hungary)

PurposeIn agricultural soils, accumulation and bioavailability patterns of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) are key ecological and health risk issues, especially in metal-based crop protection systems such as those applied in vineyards. However, PTE levels in the topsoils of historical wine-growing regions of Hungary have been scarcely studied so far. The specific goals of this research were to assess the accumulation tendencies and bioavailability of PTEs complemented with human health risk assessment in two sloping vineyards with pH-contrasted soils in Tokaj-Hegyalja, Hungary, and under different farming practices.MethodsComposite topsoil (< 20 cm) and borehole samples were collected from two vineyards and local forests. The total and bioavailable PTE contents (Zn, Pb, Co, Ni, Cr, Cu) were analyzed following digestion in aqua regia and extraction with a strong chelating agent (0.05 M Na2-EDTA). Enrichment factors (EFs) were calculated based on Fe as a reference element and the local uncultivated soil. The hazard indexes (HIs) for outdoor workers, children, and adults living in residential areas near the vineyards were calculated to assess the health risks associated with the target PTEs.ResultsHigher PTE contents were observed in the organic vineyard (near Tokaj) compared to the conventional one (near Tállya), except for Cu and Pb. The EFs confirmed that the duration of Cu-fungicide applications mainly determines the soil-bound Cu levels, with an average of 2.6 in the 28-year-old organic vineyard and 9.6 in the more than 100-year-old conventional vineyard. The PTEs predominantly accumulated at the top of the hillslope in Tállya, while in Tokaj, a general trend of downslope accumulation of PTEs can be noticed. Bioavailable Cu reached a maximum of 50% of total Cu at the top of the hillslope (Tállya) and positively correlated with soil organic matter content. Iron/Mn oxides, total Ca content, and soil pH show a significant correlation with the PTE total contents (other than Cu); meanwhile, their bioavailability is mainly influenced by Mn oxides. The calculated HIs are less than 1, indicating no elevated health risk. Total Cr is the major contributor to the HI in both vineyards, reaching 79.0% (Tokaj) and 49.7% (Tállya).ConclusionOverall, the accumulated Cu contents mainly depended on the vineyard age, while farming practices and terrain morphology play a minor role in its spatial distribution. The further accumulation of PTEs, especially in high-metal hotspots within the vineyards, may ultimately cause toxicity to re-planted grapevines, soil biota, and, in the longer term, farmers and residents.

Effect of Organic and Conventional Production Methods on Fruit Yield and Nutritional Quality Parameters in Three Traditional Cretan Grape Varieties: Results from a Farm Survey.

The antioxidants found in grapes and wine have been linked to health benefits in humans, but may be affected by agronomic parameters, grape type/variety, and processing. Here, we report results of a farm survey which investigated the effects of production system (organic vs. conventional) and grape variety on fruit yield, total antioxidant activity/capacity (TAA, assessed by the Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assays), and total concentrations of total phenolics (TPC) and anthocyanins (TAC) in grapes of one red (Kotsifali) and two white (Villana and/or Vidiano) traditional Cretan grape varieties. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results showed that grape variety choice had a more substantial effect on TPC, TAA, and TAC than primary production protocols, and significant interactions were identified between production system and grape variety choice for TAATEAC. Specifically, TAATEAC was significantly (57%) higher in organic than conventional Vidiano grapes, while there was no significant effect of production system on TAATEAC in Kotsifali and Villana grapes. As expected from previous studies, the TAC was substantially higher in red Kotsifali grapes. Redundancy analysis (RDA) identified grape variety as the only strong explanatory variable/driver for yield, TPC, TAA, and TAC of table grapes, and positive associations were detected between the variety Vidiano and both TPC and TAATEAC. All other explanatory variables included in the RDA (including supplementary irrigation, orchard orientation, production system, soil type, vineyard age, plant density, and fertiliser inputs) explained only a small proportion of the additional variation.

Role of cultivar susceptibility and vineyard age in GTD: examples from the Carpathian Basin

Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are among the most severe problems in viticulture worldwide. The exact etiology and the role of endophytic microorganisms is not known yet and there is no adequate protection or curative treatment against the disease. Hungarian wine regions are also affected by the disease, and there is restricted information about the rate of infection nation-wide and about the susceptibility of the Hungarian cultivars. The main objectives of our research are to measure the symptom expression and the damage caused by GTDs, to understand the epidemiology and etiology of the disease to establish a foundation of a proper disease management. Cultivar susceptibility groups were created with the aim to allocate some Hungarian cultivars and the role of vineyard age was also examined in symptom expression.

Evaluating the worth of nascent old vine cues for South African wines

Purpose In increasingly competitive markets, opportunities exist to meaningfully differentiate product offerings by cue signalling the claims of emergent categories. Therefore, and within the context of wine sales, the purpose of this study models the supply-led price importance of nascent, extrinsic old vine (OV) cues for South African wines to establish whether to what extent and how producers prioritise such nascent cues relative to more established extrinsic cues of worth. Design/methodology/approach A data set was compiled of 159 South African wines with OV category cues signalled on front labels, back labels or via marketing material. The play of contending cue variables was computed through an ordinary least square hedonic pricing model. Findings In addition to the contribution of established cues such as aggregated critic ratings, grape varieties and area of origin, this study confirms that vineyard age contributes significantly to wine price, particularly when signalled on back labels. Practical implications In price setting and positional models, such as brand extensions, the findings prove useful in understanding the inherent value of nascent cues and specifically vineyard age, relative to competing established wine cues of worth. Originality/value This study extends the wine pricing theory by validating the viability of nascent OV cues in the modelling of a wine’s value.

High soil phosphorus levels overrule the potential benefits of organic farming on arbuscular mycorrhizal diversity in northern vineyards

Organic farming is a key approach to reconcile food production, biodiversity conservation and environmental sustainability. Due to reduced inputs of agrochemicals, the success of organic farming is heavily dependent on the ecosystem services provided by the soil microbial community, and in particular by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Numerous studies have already shown that also grapevines (Vitis vinifera) depend on AMF for normal growth and development. To what extent organic agriculture benefits the AMF communities on vines at regional scales, however, is still poorly understood. Here, we first quantified the relative importance of organic management, soil chemical characteristics, and geography on vineyard AMF diversity and community composition. Second, we tested whether soil nutrients fundamentally change the host-AMF community dynamics through changing universality of dissimilarity overlap curves. To identify AMF communities, we used high-throughput pyrosequencing on 170 root samples from grapevines originating from 18 conventionally and 16 organically managed Belgian and Dutch vineyards. We found no differences in AMF diversity between conventionally and organically managed vineyards. Soil phosphorus content and soil acidity, however, was strongly negatively associated with AMF diversity. Together with management type (organic vs. conventional), these two soil variables did also explain most of the variation in AMF community composition. The observed accumulation of soil copper, used to control fungal diseases, especially in organically managed vineyards, did not affect AMF communities. We observed, however, that copper concentration in the soil increased with vineyard age, indicating copper accumulation in the soil over time. AMF communities showed a regularity in interactions among taxa and their host. Under high soil P availability, however, interactions became more irregular. The potential benefits of organic vineyard management in terms of a high diversity of AMF are highly compromised by elevated soil phosphorus levels which may jeopardize the role of these symbionts in improving plant health and soil fertility. Decreasing nutrient inputs, even organic, is a key step in developing diverse AMF communities in vineyards.

Copper Accumulation and Availability in Sandy, Acid, Vineyard Soils

ABSTRACTThe use of copper (Cu)-based fungicides to control diseases in vineyards can cause excessive Cu accumulation in soils. Greater Cu availability is expected in acid sandy soils with low organic matter (OM), where the risk of toxicity to plants and environment contamination is high. This study aimed to study the evolution of Cu in acid, sandy soils planted with grapevines for a period of time between 2 and 32 years. Two studies were carried out in South Brazil: in the first study, soil samples, from 19 vineyards were collected and analyzed in the first 0.2 m depth-layer for the total and available Cu. In the second study, 3 soils were selected among the previous 19 according to the age of vineyard (5, 11, and 30 year-old), and their 0.60 m-depth profile was analyzed for 5 fractions of Cu (soluble, exchangeable, mineral, organic, and residual). All the soils were classified as Ultisols. The vineyards with more than 25 years under cultivation had a mean total Cu concentration of 90 mg kg−1 in the 0–0.10 m layer. Approximately 80% of it was potentially available to plants. The greatest total and available Cu were found in the soil surface layers (0.2 m depth), where up to 75% of the total Cu is adsorbed in clay minerals and only 20% is complexed in the OM.

Ecological and conventional viticulture gives rise to distinct fungal and bacterial microbial communities in vineyard soils

The new ecological approach to viticulture emphasises ecologically sound grape production and recognizes the importance of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) interactions with soil microbial communities. Due to different viticulture measures, distinctly different microbial communities can form, which affects the potentially beneficial interactions with the grapevines. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to identify differences in the community structures of fungal and bacterial soil communities on a landscape scale, and to relate these to the type and duration of soil management, and to within vineyard habitats. Soil fungal and bacterial communities were screened in vineyards with different soil management (ecological, conventional) and ages (3, 10, 35 years). In each vineyard, 35 rhizosphere soil samples were acquired from beneath the grapevines and between the rows, using a grid covering of 240m2 per vineyard. Automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis of the microbial soil samples was carried out, with the microbial lifeforms compared among the vineyards (bacteria vs. fungi). There was high variability in the local microbial diversity for all of the sampled plots, with significant differences among the vineyards under ecological and conventional soil management. In comparison to fungi, soil management and age of vineyard had significantly greater impact on bacteria. Microbial communities showed no general overlap in diversity spots or simultaneous changes in community composition along the sampling grids. These results suggest that the microbial communities reflect the influences of highly localised biogeographic factors and vineyard management, with the most profound effects observed after deep tillage. Furthermore, fungal and bacterial communities forming in the vineyard soils appear to be influenced by different sets of environmental factors.

Incidence of grapevine trunk diseases is influenced by soil, topology and vineyard age, but not by Diplodia seriata infection rate in the Tokaj Wine Region, Hungary

Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTD) are of great importance worldwide, including Hungary, a Center European country with long wine producing history. Several GTD pathogens have been described till now in Europe, but only a few from Hungary. The presence of a GTD pathogen in the vine does not necessarily result in the immediate appearance of disease symptoms, and information on the importance of environmental factors related to disease incidence are still limited. The aim of this research was to assess the occurrence of GTD in the Tokaj Wine Region, and to determine the biotic and abiotic factors influencing disease incidence. Five vineyards within 15 km radius – each with different topology, soil types, varieties and age – were studied for three consecutive years (2013 – 2015). The incidence of GTD-infection was determined every year for each vineyard. Diplodia seriata was isolated with incidence ranging from 50 to 100%, while Diaporthe spp. were the only other – minor – GTD pathogen found. Topology and soil type appeared to be major abiotic factors affecting incidence of GTD symptom. Disease incidence was also positively correlating with the age of the vineyards, and it was in fact found to be the definitive biotic factor regarding incidence. In contrast, D. seriata infection rate appeared unrelated to disease incidence or to any of the biotic or abiotic factors investigated.

Factors affecting distribution and abundance of Aspergillus section Nigri in vineyard soils from grapevine growing regions of Argentina

Aspergillus species belonging to section Nigri are the main fungi responsible for ochratoxin (OTA) contamination in grapes and wine. These species live as saprophytes in the superficial layer of the vineyard soil. We evaluated the biodiversity of potentially ochratoxigenic strains of Aspergillus section Nigri isolated from vineyard soils from different grapevine growing regions of Argentina. The isolates were characterized by classical and molecular methods. A multiple correspondence analysis was performed to identify the overall correlation of the Aspergillus group distribution with environmental conditions, geographical characteristics and vineyard practices. Aspergillus niger aggregate was the prevalent group (71%) and A. carbonarius made up only 2%. Species discrimination by species-specific primers showed that in A. niger aggregate 89% were A. tubingensis; 97% of the uniseriate were A. japonicus/A. aculeatus. Isolates belonging to these groups were unable to produce OTA. Our results clearly demonstrate a strong association between presence of A. carbonarius, high average temperatures and drip irrigation. Precipitation levels appear as a secondary factor, and altitude, vineyard age, predominant species, grape variety or total fungal count showed no association with A. carbonarius. We demonstrated a low prevalence of ochratoxigenic species in vineyard soil from the grape-growing regions of Argentina.

Botryosphaeriaceae species affecting table grape vineyards in Chile and cultivar susceptibility

Morales, B.A. Latorre, E. Piontelli, and X. Besoain. 2012. Botryosphaeriaceae species affecting table grape vineyards in Chile and cultivar susceptibility. Cien. Inv. Agr. 39(3): 445-458. Several Botryosphaeriaceae species have been identified as the causes of cankers and dieback of Vitis vinifera in several grape-growing regions around the world. This research was conducted to further study the species of Botryosphaeriaceae associated with table grapes in Chile, to estimate the prevalence and severity of the disease as a function of vineyard age, to study the susceptibility of table grape cultivars to infection by Botryosphaeriaceae species, and to evaluate the effect of tissue age on the infection caused by Botryosphaeriaceae species. Symptoms were characterized by the presence of the partial or total death of the grapevine cordons and distorted leaves. Brown V-shaped or U-shaped cankers and black spots were observed in cross-sections, while brown vascular streaks were observed in longitudinal sections of the cordons and trunks. Pathogenic isolates of Diplodia seriata , D. mutila and Spencermartinsia viticola were consistently obtained from wood cankers and/or vascular streaking; D. seriata was the most common (83.3%) Botryosphaeriaceae species. In 11- to 20-year-old vineyards, the disease incidence varied between 22.0 and 69.0%, and the severity varied between 6.0 and 21.3%. The table grape cultivars ‘Thompson Seedless’, ‘Redglobe’ and ‘Flame Seedless’ were equally susceptible to infection by . The age of the inoculated tissue had no significant effect on the development of the vascular necrosis. This is the first report of D. mutila and S. viticola infections of grapevines in Chile.

Spatial Distribution of Pierce’s Disease Related to Incidence, Vineyard Characteristics, and Surrounding Land Uses

A four-year (2001 to 2004) census was conducted in 220 vineyard blocks in the San Joaquin Valley (Kern County, CA) to characterize the spatial distribution patterns of Pierce’s disease (PD) of grapevine caused by <i>Xylella fastidiosa</i>. Geostatistics and spatial analysis with distance indices were used to investigate relationships of PD incidence (i.e., percentage of vines with PD) and occurrence (i.e., presence or absence of PD) with vineyard characteristics and the surrounding environment using a geographic information system. The census confirmed 52 vineyard blocks with at least one <i>X. fastidiosa</i>-infected grapevine and PD incidence in those vineyard blocks ranged from 0.001 to 29.8%. A total of 36 of the 52 blocks had fewer than five infected vines, so spatial analysis was not valid for these blocks. For the remaining 16 blocks, the distribution of <i>X. fastidiosa</i>-infected vines could be categorized as no structure, random, spatial trend, and aggregation as the incidence increased. Eleven blocks showed PD distributions that were consistent with primary <i>X. fastidiosa</i> spread, while two blocks showed aggregations that suggested secondary or vine-to-vine spread. The distribution in one block indicated a mixture of primary and secondary spread. Two blocks had recurring aggregations of <i>X. fastidiosa</i>-infected vines within rows that could be the result of vector feeding on adjacent plants within rows or bacterial spread on pruning implements. Significantly higher PD occurrence was found in Flame Seedless vineyard blocks, and other vineyard characteristics such as vineyard age, pruning method, and planting density were not related to PD occurrence. Although PD occurrence was not spatially related with surrounding environment, PD incidence was spatially related to citrus. This study provides spatial information concerning the epidemiology and sampling of PD in vineyards.

Quantitative determination on heavy metals in different stages of wine production by Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence and Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence: Comparison on two vineyards

The purpose of this study is to determine the elemental content, namely heavy metals, of samples of vine-leaves, grapes must and wine. In order to assess the influence of the vineyard age on the elemental content throughout the several stages of wine production, elemental determinations of trace elements were made on products obtained from two vineyards aged 6 and 14 years from Douro region. The elemental content of vine-leaves and grapes was determined by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF), while analysis of the must and wine was performed by Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence (TXRF). Almost all elements present in wine and must samples did not exceed the recommended values found in literature for wine. Bromine was present in the 6 years old wine in a concentration 1 order of magnitude greater than what is usually detected. The Cu content in vine-leaves from the older vineyard was found to be extremely high probably due to excessive use of Cu-based fungicides to control vine downy mildew. Higher Cu content was also detected in grapes although not so pronounced. Concerning the wine a slightly higher level was detected on the older vineyard, even so not exceeding the recommended value.

The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi amplified from grapevine roots (Vitis vinifera L.) in Oregon vineyards is seasonally stable and influenced by soil and vine age

The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in 10 Oregon vineyards was assessed by examining spores in soil and amplifying mycorrhizal DNA from roots. Seventeen spore morphotypes were found in soil, including seven species in the Acaulosporaceae. Eighteen phylotypes were amplified from grape roots with AM1 and NS31 primers, and clones were dominated by Glomus spp. (> 99%). A few clones (< 1%) representing a single phylotype within Gigasporaceae, and a single clone within Archaeosporaceae were amplified from roots with AM1-NS31 primers. A separate experiment employing known proportions of grape roots colonized by Glomus intraradices or by Gigaspora rosea showed that fungi within Gigasporaceae might be underrepresented in clone abundance when Glomus spp. co-occur in roots. No clones representing fungi within the Acaulosporaceae were amplified from vineyards, although specific fungi within Acaulosporaceae were shown to colonize Pinot noir roots in sterilized soil and were amplified from these roots. Four Glomus phylotypes, including G. intraradices, were found in roots from all 10 vineyards, and these fungi accounted for 81% of clones. AMF phylotypes amplified from roots did not change during the growing season, although six phylotypes varied with soil type. The presence of three phylotypes was affected by vineyard age, and phylotype richness appeared to decline as vineyard age increased beyond 20 y. PCA analysis supported the hypothesis that the AMF community is different in red-hill soils than in valley soils and indicated certain phylotypes might be associated with lower soil and vine nutrient status. However, the changes in the AMF community in grape roots across vineyards were subtle because most root samples were dominated by the same three or four phylotypes. A separate analysis using primers to amplify AMF from the Archeasporaceae/Paraglomeraceae showed most root samples also were colonized by at least one Paraglomus or Archaeospora phylotype.

Copper accumulation regarding the soil characteristics in Sub-Mediterranean vineyards of Slovenia

Copper accumulation in vineyard's soil is the consequence of long-term use of copper-based fungicides against downy mildew. Copper contamination in soil of 22 vineyards in the Sub-Mediterranean winegrowing region has been studied in terms of various soil properties (cation exchange capacity, organic matter and pH), vineyard age, soil depth and landform. The CaCl 2/H 2O extractable Cu and total Cu content were determined. The study has demonstrated that the landform had an impact on CEC and pH, but it did not influence organic matter content. The CaCl 2-extractable Cu showed that the concentration obtained were low in all soil samples and ranged between 0.04 to 0.08 mg kg − 1 . The highest total Cu content in soil was determined on terraces (110–120 mg kg − 1 ), followed by plateaus (83–93 mg kg − 1 ) and planes (71–89 mg kg − 1 ), but in forests (62–65 mg kg − 1 ). Cu content increased with the vineyard age, except for planes, and it decreased with soil depth. The Slovenia guidelines for the assessment of contaminated sites recommend that total Cu concentrations in soil that exceed 60 mg kg − 1 require environmental analysis. This level is exceeded in all of the studied vineyards. Although our results indicated a lower extent of Cu accumulation in comparison to some other well-known winegrowing regions (Bordeaux 800 mg kg − 1 ; Trentino Alto Adige 161 mg kg − 1 , etc.), the results highlighted that spraying with copper-based pesticides in future should be limited.

The impact of CCA-treated posts in vineyards on soil and ground water

Grapes in Marlborough are typically grown on a vertical shoot positioned trellis system (VSP). For this purpose Pinus radiata posts are treated with CCA, a mixture of copper (Cu), chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As), giving a wood concentration of 1,730, 3,020 and 2,410 mg/kg, respectively on a dry matter basis. The CCA levels around the posts in different soils were investigated and assessed for the potential leaching of CCA into ground water. An initial survey showed leaching of all three heavy metals from the treated posts into the soil surrounding the posts (0.2% of the total vineyard area) compared with the control, depending on vineyard age and soil type. The rate of movement out of the posts was calculated from posts placed in lysimeters. HortResearch's Soil Plant Atmosphere Model (SPASMO) was used to predict the leaching rate of CCA. For As, leaching was found to be 5 mg/post/month, with the Cr rate being about twice that. Further modelling revealed a steady plume of As moving downwards after about 200-300 years. However, long-term hydrogeological modelling showed that sufficient aquifer water flow prevented the accumulation of CCA in the ground water. The modelling approaches are discussed.

Vineyard soil characteristics related to content of transition metals in a sub-Mediterranean winegrowing region of Slovenia

This study was conducted to obtain an overview of transition metals (Cd, Co, Cu, Mn, Mo, Pb and Zn) in the soils of the sub-Mediterranean winegrowing region in Slovenia. Twenty-four soil sampling sites (22 vineyards, 2 forests) were selected to obtain a reliable set of data and possibly find differences in metal content. The sites differ in soil properties, vineyard age, landform and soil depth. Soil depth and vineyard landform were found to have no significant influence on soil characteristics. Statistically significant differences in CEC (cmol kg − 1 ), pH and loss on ignition were found between vineyard and forest soils. Vineyard soils with average metal content of Cd (1.4 mg kg − 1 ), Co (23 mg kg − 1 ), Cu (7 mg kg − 1 ), Mn (1251 mg kg − 1 ), Mo (1.7 mg kg − 1 ), Pb (22 mg kg − 1 ) and Zn (101 mg kg − 1 ) can be classified as less polluted, even though the content levels of Cd, Co and Cu are higher than the limited values as defined by the Slovenian Directive. The contents of Cd and Co in forest soil were also higher than the limit values, which can only be explained by the parental material influence. The highest contents of Zn, Pb, Cu and Mn were detected in topsoil layers, although the differences according to soil sampling depth were insignificant. In view of vineyard landform, the significantly highest contents of Pb (26 mg kg − 1 ), Co (24 mg kg − 1 ), Mo (1.9 mg kg − 1 ), Cd (1.8 mg kg − 1 ) and Mn (1271 mg kg − 1 ), but not for Zn and Cu, were determined on planes. The content of Cu significantly increases with a vineyard's age. The study confirmed that the main source of transition metal pollutant in the region is intensive viticulture practice, especially the use of copper substances.

Stability of contracts in the Brazilian wine industry

A variety of contracts between wineries and grape growers are observed in Brazil. This study addresses the concept of coordination of food chains, particularly the stability of contractual relationships. A qualitative analysis of industry-farmers contracts is presented, followed by a quantitative analysis testing transaction cost economics-based hypothesis. Scale, location, age of vineyard, and the cooperative organizational form are addressed in terms of the effect on the stability of contracts. Vertical and horizontal coordination are addressed. Data come from a sample of 139 grape-growers that supplied 10 major wineries. The results show that more stable contracts or vertical integration are characteristic of high quality wine production, where the need for strict contractual coordination is more relevant, i.e. risk of hold up losses is larger. We test the hypothesis that site specificity and quality-related specific investments are associated with more stable contractual architectures. Farmers' cooperatives present poorer performance but tend to hold more stable relationships with their members, possibly the result of adverse selection, since specialized farmers prefer to maintain contracts with investor-owned wineries, instead of farmers' cooperatives. Conclusions are presented in the final part.

Analysing rate and spatial variability of vinestock mortality in a Languedocian vineyard from high resolution aerial photographs

&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;To define the spatial extension of vineyard mortality over a region and to precise the respective contribution of its different possible causes requires to visit a sufficient number of fields in order to include the variety of vegetal material, soil types and agricultural practices which can be encountered in the studied region. To reduce the cost of these investigations, we propose to evaluate the vineyard mortality by estimating, for each field, the rate of missing vinestocks from high resolution aerial photographs. In order to identify possible causes of vineyard mortality, this information is then combined with maps of candidate factors, e.g. soil, age of vineyard, vine-variety, weeding technique, training system, by using a Geographical Information System. The proposed approach is tested over four sampling areas of 356 ha and 196 vineyard fields which are representative of the lower Peyne valley (Herault -South of France). The main results are as follows :&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- The rates of vineyard mortality are satisfactorily predicted from aerial photographs (RMSE = 6.5 p. cent),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- The average rate of vineyard mortality is high (e.g. 35 p. cent of the fields have more than 12 p. cent of death vinestocks),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- The rates of vineyard mortality are extremely variable both from a sampling area to another and from a field to another within a given sampling area.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- They seem to be more in relation with soil and agricultural practices than with age or vine-variety. Particularly, colluviosols with redoxic horizon developped on colluvion of miocene marine sediments reveal rates of vineyard mortality which are significantly higher than other soil types&lt;/p&gt;