Villages In Cameroon Research Articles

Phylogenetic evidence of extensive spatial mixing of diverse HIV-1 group M lineages within Cameroon but not between its neighbours.

From the perspective of developing relevant interventions for treating HIV and controlling its spread, it is particularly important to comprehensively understand the underlying diversity of the virus, especially in countries where the virus has been present and evolving since the cross-species transmission event that triggered the global pandemic. Here, we generate and phylogenetically analyse sequences derived from the gag-protease (2010 bp; n = 115), partial integrase (345 bp; n = 36), and nef (719 bp; n = 321) genes of HIV-1 group M (HIV-1M) isolates sampled between 2000 and 2022 from two cosmopolitan cities and 40 remote villages of Cameroon. While 52.4% of all sequenced viruses belonged to circulating recombinant form (CRF) 02_AG (CRF02_AG), the remainder were highly diverse, collectively representing seven subtypes and sub-subtypes, eight CRFs, and 36 highly divergent lineages that fall outside the established HIV-1M classification. Additionally, in 77 samples for which at least two genes were typed, 31% of the studied viruses apparently had fragments from viruses belonging to different clades. Furthermore, we found that the distribution of HIV-1M populations is similar between different regions of Cameroon. In contrast, HIV-1M demographics in Cameroon differ significantly from those in its neighbouring countries in the Congo Basin (CB). In phylogenetic trees, viral sequences cluster according to the countries where they were sampled, suggesting that while there are minimal geographical or social barriers to viral dissemination throughout Cameroon, there is strongly impeded dispersal of HIV-1M lineages between Cameroon and other locations of the CB. This suggests that the apparent stability of highly diverse Cameroonian HIV-1M populations may be attributable to the extensive mixing of human populations within the country and the concomitant trans-national movements of major lineages with very similar degrees of fitness; coupled with the relatively infrequent inter-national transmission of these lineages from neighbouring countries in the CB.

Smart Village Voices in Africa, Cameroon: Part 3—Electrification of Off-Grid Villages in Cameroon

This article describes a plan and demonstration system for the large-scale deployment of solar photovoltaic (PV) and battery minigrids throughout the 10 regions of Cameroon. The developer for this effort, Renewable Energy Innovators—Cameroon (REIc), has been a core developer of the IEEE Smart Village family of minigrid products (please see “Part 1” of this series) over a 10-yr period.

Surveillance for Onchocerciasis-Associated Epilepsy and OV16 IgG4 Testing of Children 6-10 Years Old Should Be Used to Identify Areas Where Onchocerciasis Elimination Programs Need Strengthening.

To eliminate onchocerciasis-associated morbidity, it is important to identify areas where there is still high ongoing Onchocerca volvulus transmission. Between 2015 and 2021, door-to-door surveys were conducted in onchocerciasis-endemic villages in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria, South Sudan, and Tanzania to determine epilepsy prevalence and incidence, type of epilepsy and ivermectin therapeutic coverage. Moreover, children aged between six and 10 years were tested for anti-Onchocerca antibodies using the Ov16 IgG4 rapid diagnostic test (RDT). A mixed-effect binary logistic regression analysis was used to assess significantly associated variables of Ov16 antibody seroprevalence. A high prevalence and incidence of epilepsy was found to be associated with a high Ov16 antibody seroprevalence among 6–10-year-old children, except in the Logo health zone, DRC. The low Ov16 antibody seroprevalence among young children in the Logo health zone, despite a high prevalence of epilepsy, may be explained by a recent decrease in O. volvulus transmission because of a decline in the Simulium vector population as a result of deforestation. In the Central African Republic, a new focus of O. volvulus transmission was detected based on the high Ov16 IgG4 seropositivity among children and the detecting of nodding syndrome cases, a phenotypic form of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy (OAE). In conclusion, Ov16 IgG4 RDT testing of 6–10-year-old children is a cheap and rapid method to determine the level of ongoing O. volvulus transmission and to assess, together with surveillance for OAE, the performance of onchocerciasis elimination programs.

Sanitation Facilities, Water Quality, and Child Health in a Hunter-Gatherer, Semi-Sedentary Village in Cameroon

Sanitation Facilities, Water Quality, and Child Health in a Hunter-Gatherer, Semi-Sedentary Village in Cameroon

Negotiating political power and stigma around fragile X Syndrome in a rural village in Cameroon: A tale of a royal family and a community.

BackgroundFragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a neurogenetic condition that significantly impacts the lives of affected individuals and their families due to its association with intellectual disability (ID) and stigma.MethodIn this paper, we present the findings of an ethnographic study in the community of a patient who received a genetic diagnosis for FXS in Cameroon. This study builds on data from 28 participants of a royal family and 58 from the community who participated in 20 in‐depth interviews and nine focus group discussions.ResultsWe identified two types of stigma in this community: public stigma directed towards the royal family and associative stigma experienced by royal family members. We outline the stereotyping labels used for the family and its children with Fragile X Syndrome and describe the stigma‐power dynamic between the community members and the royal family. First, most villagers use less stigmatizing terms to addressing FXS children from the chieftaincy because of their position in society. Secondly, due to their social position, the royal family uses their status to negotiate marriages with community members. From these observations, we can suggest that the primary role of stigma in this community is to keep people away from FXS and keep them down through domination and exploitation.ConclusionWe advocate that other researchers examine if the same pattern exists in other inheritable forms of ID and conduct more qualitative research on FXS in Africa.

Climate-Smart Practices of Smallholder Farmers in Cameroon Confronted with Climate Variability and Change: The Example of Agroforestry

Faced with the adverse effects of climate variability and change (CVC), agro-ecological farming practices like agroforestry are crucial especially for smallholder farmers who are extremely vulnerable. It was within this context that this study appraised smallholder farmers’ agroforestry practices faced with climate change adversities. Biophysical and socio-economic data were collected from ten villages in Cameroon. Findings showed that climate parameters have experienced significant fluctuations in the past five decades. Smallholder farmers practice several agroforestry practices and integrate a plethora of tree/shrub species on agroforestry plots in order to adapt to climate change. Six main types of agroforestry trees/shrub species (trees/shrubs used for fuelwood, fruits, building materials, fodder, soil improvement, medicines) were integrated by smallholder farmers within agroforestry plots. T test and Chi-square test statistics indicated a strong non-causal relationship between explanatory variables (institutional and socio-economic attributes) and smallholder farmers’ agroforestry practicing decision faced with CVC. Logistic regression showed that a strong positive causal relationship exists between four explanatory variables (age of household head, access to information, access to credit and degree of vulnerability) and smallholder farmers’ agroforestry practicing decision faced with CVC. The study therefore recommends that institutional and socio-economic factors (credit facilities and reliable information) fostering smallholder farmers’ practice of agroforestry faced with CVC should be provided by governmental and non-governmental agencies in order to enhance the odds of smallholder farmers practicing agroforestry faced with the adverse effects of CVC.

Motorcycle-Related Head and Limbs Injuries from Road Traffic Accident at a Second Level Hospital in Cameroon

Motorcycles have been increasing used widely in various urban, suburban and villages in Cameroon with an increased in accidents resulting to injuries among the population. Head and limbs injuries are responsible for most of the cases encountered from related crashes. A prospective study on head and limbs injuries resulting from motorcycle crash were assessed among the different cases brought to the casualty and emergency department of the Kumba district hospital. Most of the injured cases were of motorcycle and other vehicle collisions 203 (47.65) and the least among motorcycle lone crash 51 (11.97). Motorcycle to motorcycle collisions accounted for 107 (25.12 %) of the cases. 65 (15.26%) were motorcycle with pedestrians related collision. Stepping up and facilitating the regulations on licenses and the use of personal protective equipment for riders, improvement of roads infrastructures with pedestrian path, expanding health facilities and equipment, and human resources for health as well as empowering the population on road safety measures will be very important for RTAs control measures of the nation.

Clinical presentations of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy (OAE) in Cameroon

BackgroundA high prevalence of epilepsy has been observed in several onchocerciasis-endemic countries, including Cameroon. However, little is known on the clinical presentations of the affected persons with epilepsy (PWE). A community-based study was conducted with the aim of describing the spectrum of seizures in selected onchocerciasis-endemic villages in Cameroon and documenting relevant medical history in patients with onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy (OAE). MethodsWe carried out door-to-door surveys in 5 onchocerciasis-endemic villages in Cameroon and recruited all consenting PWE. Epilepsy was diagnosed using a 2-step approach consisting of the administration of a standardized 5-item questionnaire followed by confirmation of the suspected cases by a neurologist. Onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy was defined as ≥2 seizures without an obvious cause, starting between the ages of 3–18 years in previously healthy persons having resided for at least 3 years in an onchocerciasis-endemic area. Ivermectin use by PWE was verified. Seizure history, relevant past medical, and family history, as well as neurological findings, were noted. ResultsIn all, 156 PWE were recruited in the 5 villages. The modal age group for epilepsy onset was 10–14 years. The diagnostic criteria for OAE were met by 93.2% of the PWE. Participants had one or more of the following seizure types: generalized tonic–clonic seizures (89.1%), absences (38.5%), nodding (21.8%), focal nonmotor (7.7%), and focal motor seizures (1.9%). One case (0.6%) with the “Nakalanga syndrome” was identified. More than half (56.4%) of PWE had at least one seizure per month. In one village, 56.2% of PWE had onchocercal skin lesions. ConclusionPeople with epilepsy in onchocerciasis-endemic villages in Cameroon present with a wide clinical spectrum including nodding seizures and Nakalanga features. A great majority of participants met the diagnostic criteria for OAE, suggesting that better onchocerciasis control could prevent new cases. Epilepsy management algorithms in these areas must be adjusted to reflect the varied seizure types.

The temporal relationship between onchocerciasis and epilepsy: a population-based cohort study

Many studies have suggested that onchocerciasis might be associated with epilepsy. Therefore, we did a cohort study to assess the incidence of epilepsy relative to Onchocerca volvulus skin microfilarial density (MFD) measured during childhood and to assess the possibility of a temporal relationship. During onchocerciasis surveys undertaken in 25 villages in Cameroon during 1991-93, we measured MFD in individuals aged 5 years or older. In 2017, we revisited seven of these villages. With a standardised five-item questionnaire, we collected information on the occurrence of epilepsy in 856 individuals who were aged 5-10 years in 1991-93, and had MFD determined during the original surveys. We did multivariable analyses to assess the overall incidence and incidence ratios taking into account age, sex, individual MFD in 1991-93, and onchocerciasis endemicity level in the village. In 2017, we obtained data on the history of epilepsy for 85% (729 of 856) of individuals. Among these individuals, we classified 60 as being suspected cases of epilepsy. The overall incidence of epilepsy was 350 per 100 000 person-years (95% CI 270-450). The adjusted incidence ratio for developing epilepsy was 7·07 (95% CI 0·98-51·26; p=0·0530) in individuals with initial MFD of one to five microfilariae per skin snip (mf per snip), 11·26 (2·73-46·43) in individuals with six to 20 mf per snip, 12·90 (4·40-37·83) in individuals with 21-50 mf per snip, 20·00 (3·71-108·00) in individuals with 51-100 mf per snip, 22·58 (3·21-158·56) in individuals with 101-200 mf per snip, and 28·50 (95% CI 3·84-211·27; p=0·0010) in individuals with more than 200 mf per snip, compared with that of individuals without detectable densities of skin microfilariae. Individual O volvulus MFD in childhood was associated with the risk of either seizures or epilepsy in an onchocerciasis focus in Cameroon. This temporal relationship suggests a potential causal link between onchocerciasis and epilepsy. European Research Council, NSETHIO Project.

Onchocerciasis-Associated Epilepsy in Children and Adolescents in Africa: A Multi-Country Community-Based Study

Background: Epilepsy is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. A high epilepsy prevalence has been reported in onchocerciasis-endemic regions, where seizure onset commonly occurs during childhood or early adolescence. We investigated epilepsy in individuals aged 5-19 years living in onchocerciasis-endemic regions. Methods: Between 2016 and 2018, household epilepsy surveys were performed in onchocerciasis-endemic villages in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Using a validated questionnaire, all households were screened for children and adolescents suspected to have epilepsy. The latter were further examined by a trained clinical officer, medical doctor and/or neurologist for confirmation. Onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy (OAE) was defined as epilepsy starting between the ages of 3-18 years in previously healthy children living in onchocerciasis meso- or hyper-endemic areas, with no other known cause of seizures. Findings: Of the 13 000 children and adolescents aged 5-19 years who were screened, 676 (5·2%) had epilepsy; of those, 450 (66·6%) met all OAE diagnostic criteria. Eighty percent of individuals with epilepsy had seizures monthly, 25·7% showed cognitive abnormalities, and 9·8% had burns or traumatic lesions related to seizures. Only 53·6% of participants with epilepsy received daily anti-epileptic treatment, and 62·1% had not completed primary education by the age of 13 years. Excess mortality among subjects with epilepsy ranged from 26 to 69 per 1000 individuals aged 5-19 years. Epilepsy annual incidence was 6·1 per 1000 individuals, and was lowest in areas with low onchocerciasis transmission. Interpretation: OAE causes considerable morbidity and mortality among individuals aged 5-19 years and affects their health, education and quality of life. Urgent action is needed to prevent children from developing OAE, and to provide treatment and care for all children and adolescents with epilepsy in onchocerciasis-endemic regions. Funding Statement: ERC Advanced Grant (67105), NSETHIO Project. Declaration of Interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethics Approval Statement: Ethical approval was obtained for all studies from the ethics committee of the University of Antwerp, Belgium and from the ethics committees in the African countries. The study aims and procedures were explained to all participants in the language of their choice and signed or finger-printed informed consent was obtained from participants, parents or caretakers, and assent from adolescents (age 12–19 years). All personal information was encoded and treated confidentially.

Cultural implications of international volunteer tourism: US students’ experiences in Cameroon

ABSTRACTA popular trend is for US colleges to organise short-term, self-funded trips for students to volunteer for several weeks in poverty-stricken communities in the global South. To explore the cultural implications of short-term, international volunteer projects, I undertake an ethnographic study of college students of who travel to a small village in Cameroon to improve the quality of drinking water and community health. I examine whether the volunteer tourism can serve as a unique opportunity to see beyond the African stereotypes to recognise the historical and structural context in which Africa continues to suffer. Although a trip such as this can be a disruptive event for students to critically evaluate the global privileges of Westerners, students tend to experience Cameroon through the lens of popular stereotypes about Africa and Western paternalism. The encounters with Africans in the absence of sufficient education about postcolonial Africa can affirm the stereotypes and cultural superiority formed in USA because students negotiate their actual experience in ways to confirm their perception of Africa. Therefore, seminars and workshops about the fundamental aspects about global inequality can help educate volunteers about the postcolonial context of foreign aid of Western countries for the Third World, and White privilege.

Trade-offs in linking adaptation and mitigation in the forests of the Congo Basin

Recent discussions on forests and climate change have highlighted the potential for conservation of tropical forests to contribute synergistically to both mitigation (reducing emissions of greenhouse gases) and adaptation (increasing capacity to cope with changing climate conditions). Key mechanisms through which adaptive advantages might be gained include the potential for forest resources to support livelihoods in the context of climatic strains on agriculture and the protection that intact forest ecosystems might provide against landslides, flash floods and other hazards related to extreme weather. This paper presents findings from field research with forest communities in three areas of the Congo Basin in Central Africa, in which the adaptive role and potential of forests in these respects is critically analysed. The investigation was carried out through a combination of structured and semi-structured qualitative techniques within six villages in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Rwanda. The findings of the research highlight the need to understand both the limits of synergy, and the constraints and trade-offs for rural livelihoods that may be associated with a forest conservation agenda driven by the additional impetus of carbon sequestration. The search for synergy may be conceptually laudable, but if forest management actions do not take account of on-the-ground contexts of constraints and social trade-offs then the result of those actions risks undermining wider livelihood resilience.

Findings from the Caring International Research Collaborative: Using Caring Science To Assess and Support Food Sustainability Systems for Women Living with HIV/AIDS in a Village in Cameroon

This study proposes Caring Science as an innovative way to facilitate food systems sustainability in areas of the world that continue to suffer from food insecurity and food shortages. An interdisciplinary group that included a nurse, an agronomist, an environmentalist, and a statistical analyst collaborated to study food sustainability in a village in Bambui, Cameroon. The village was composed of only women and children, and all the women were diagnosed with HIV/AIDS. This interdisciplinary approach not only met the food needs of the village, but, within the assessment process, identified other needs as well. This interdisciplinary approach facilitated holistic assessment of food, finances, personal self-worth and health.

Processing and Quality of “red kapsiki” an Opaque Beer from “Mandara” Mountain in Cameroon

Aims: Mandara is a chain of Mountains located in northern Cameroun with the border of the republic of Nigeria. This area is populated by “kapsiki” an indigenous populations living. This non moslem population is brewing an opaque beer, which has both a symbolic and nutritional. This paper aims at investigating the physicochemical and microbial quality of this beer and highlights its processing. Study Design: The study design used for describing processing method is cluster sampling of the cities surveyed, production sites and markets, and at the secondary level, individuals and groups of individual respondents. Place and Duration of Study: In order to describe and follow the production process, a survey Original Research Article James et al.; BBJ, 9(1): 1-11, 2015; Article no.BBJ.18919 2 was conducted in three rural villages of Cameroon, namely Rhumsiki, Rhumzu and Mogode. Later on, some samples from two urban town close to the area of Mokolo. Methodology: To describe and follow the production process, a survey on the basis of a questionnaire was conducted. The sample pH, conductivity, density and brix, were recorded onsite using portables devices (conductimeter, densitometer and brixmeter). Laboratory experiment: Following parameters: titrable acidity, polyphenols, ethanol, specific gravity,viscosity was determined according to accredited methods. Microbial analysis focused on total aerobic mesophilic bacteria, coliforms, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, Shigella, yeasts, molds and sulphite‐reducing clostridia were evaluated. Results: The kapsiki requires for its preparation following steps: malting with quenching, germination and kilning, decoction, filtration, boiling and sterilizing, cooling, sowing and fermentation. The final beverage is opaque, soft and sparkling. The “red Kapsiki” presented an alcohol content of 3.85 to 4.28 (% v/v), a pH close to 2.40, soluble extract from 6.30 to7.29 °P, Brix from 7.0 to 7.46 °B, total sugar from 41.8 to 72.9 (g/l), conductivity from 1919 to 1990 (μS/cm), and Specific density (g/cm) a 15°C of 1.25. The color of the “red kapsiki” varies from a pinky brown to reddish according the variety of sorghum used. The microbial analyses indicate the presence of Coliforms including Salmonella and Shigella, yeasts and molds in the beverages which indicate the bad hygienic quality of “the red Kapsiki”. Conclusion: Despite its poor hygienic quality, the “red kapsiki”, presented great potential source of income and nutrient for local beer producers.

Chasing a Pair of Chinese Sandals: Markets and Trade Routes in Cameroon

What are the connections between a village in Cameroon and the transnational network of Chinese junk? From interviews with vendors of Chinese junk and observations of commercial areas, this paper shows territorial dynamics at two ends of the trade route in Cameroon: Douala and the periodic markets in Mont Bamboutos (West). This paper argues that the structuring of the Chinese junk trade route integrates town and countryside in a complementary space produced by commercial relations, appropriated by the traders, and characterised by recent booming trading places, recent urban-rural mobility and unprecedented connections to transnational networks. The development of the Chinese junk sector structures a trade route characterised by local combinations of visible faces and inconspicuous connections and sides. The first part of the paper emphasizes the development of Chinatown in Douala through the change of the commercial equipment’s landscape and the change of the actor landscape. The second part deals with the role of the rural markets and of the rural hawkers’ mobility in the structuring of the trade route and of new territorialities based on urban-rural mobility.

Multimycotoxin analysis in urines to assess infant exposure: A case study in Cameroon

This study was conducted to investigate mycotoxin exposure in children (n=220, aged 1.5–4.5years) from high mycotoxin contamination regions of Cameroon and to examine the association between the mycotoxin levels (in total 18 analytes) and several socio-demographic factors and anthropometric characteristics. A cross-sectional study was conducted in six villages in Cameroon with 220 children. Mycotoxins and their metabolites were detected in 160/220 (73%) urine samples.There were significant differences in the mean contamination levels of ochratoxin A (p=0.01) and β-zearalenol (p=0.017) between the two agro-ecological zones investigated. Likewise significant differences were observed in the mean levels of aflatoxin M1 (p=0.001) across the weaning categories of these children. The mean concentration of aflatoxin M1 detected in the urine of the partially breastfed children (1.43ng/mL) was significantly higher (p=0.001) than those of the fully weaned children (0.282ng/mL).Meanwhile, the mean concentrations of deoxynivalenol (3.0ng/mL) and fumonisin B1 (0.59ng/mL) detected in the urine of the male children was significantly (p value 0.021 for deoxynivalenol and 0.004 for fumonisin B1) different from the levels detected in the urine of female children; 0.71ng/mL and 0.01ng/mL for deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 respectively. In this study, there was no association between the different malnutrition categories (stunted, wasting and underweight) and the mycotoxin concentrations detected in the urine of these children.However, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that children in Cameroon under the age 5 are exposed to high levels of carcinogenic substances such as fumonisin B1, aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A through breastfeeding. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of its kind carried out in West Africa to determine multi-mycotoxin exposure in infants.

The spectrum of skin diseases in a rural setting in Cameroon (sub-Saharan Africa)

BackgroundSkin disorders are generally considered to be more prevalent in the rural areas of Cameroon. This study was carried out to verify this assumption by describing the spectrum of skin disorders in a rural setting of Cameroon.MethodsWe carried out a community-based clinical skin examination of 400 consenting subjects from 4 villages of Cameroon: Nyamanga (27%), Yebekolo (24%), Mbangassina (23%) and Bilomo (26%).ResultsThe overall prevalence of skin diseases in our sample was 62% {95% CI: 57.2%, 66.8%} (248/400). The commonest skin disorders were: fungal infections (25.4%), parasitic infestations (21.4%), atrophic skin disorders (11.7%), hypertrophic skin disorders (9.7%), disorders of skin appendages {acne} (8.9%), benign neoplasm (6.5%), bacterial skin infections (5.2%), pigmentation disorders (4.8%), and dermatitis/eczema (4.0%). Skin infections and infestations constituted 52.82% of all skin disorders. The overall prevalence of infectious and parasitic infestation was 32.75% {95%CI: 28.17%, 37.59%} (131/400) as against 29.25% {95%CI: 24.83%, 33.98%} (117/400) for non-infectious disorders.Among people with skin infections/parasitic infestations, those with fungal infections and onchocercal skin lesions were the most prevalent, accounting for 48.1% (63/131) and 35.1% (46/131); and an overall prevalence of 15.75% {95%CI: 12.3%, 19.7%} (63/400) and 11.5% {95%CI: 8.5%, 15.0%} (46/400) respectively.There was secondary bacterial infection in 12.1% {95%CI: 8.31%, 16.82%} (30/248) of subjects with skin diseases. Hypertrophic and atrophic disorders of the skin were mainly keloids (9.68%), scarification marks (6.05%) and burn scars (5.65%). Skin diseases like dermatitis and eczema (4.03%), malignant tumours and pigmentation disorders were rare in our sample.The proportion of subjects diagnosed with skin disorders after examination (62.8%) was significantly higher than the proportion of 40.8% that declared having skin diseases (p < 0.0001).ConclusionThe prevalence of skin diseases in the rural Mbam valley is alarming, dominated by easily treatable or preventable skin infections and their magnitude is highly neglected by the community, contrasting with findings in the urban setting. Similar studies are needed in other ecological/demographic settings of the country in order to construct a better understanding of the epidemiology of skin disorders. This would lead to the development of national policies to improve skin care.

Psychological Undertones of Family Poverty in Rural Communities in Cameroon: Resilience and Coping Strategies

The objectives of this exploratory study were to investigate (a) the effects of poverty, and (b) family resilience strategies used in managing poverty among the Bakweri of Bonavada villages in Cameroon. Fifty heads of families comprising 250 persons constituted the participants of the study. Ten of the family heads who are opinion leaders were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide and ten participated in a focus group discussion. In addition, an unstructured interview was used to collect data from 40 heads of families. Data were analysed using content analysis and descriptively using percentages. The study found that the effects of family poverty are multifaceted, and families depend largely on resilience and their socio-cultural context to cope with poverty.

Identification of new, emerging HIV-1 unique recombinant forms and drug resistant viruses circulating in Cameroon

BackgroundThe HIV epidemic in Cameroon is characterized by a high degree of viral genetic diversity with circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) being predominant. The goal of our study was to determine recent trends in virus evolution and emergence of drug resistance in blood donors and HIV positive patients.MethodologyBlood specimens of 73 individuals were collected from three cities and a few villages in Cameroon and viruses were isolated by co-cultivation with PBMCs. Nested PCR was performed for gag p17 (670 bp) pol (840 bp) and Env gp41 (461 bp) genes. Sequences were phylogenetically analyzed using a reference set of sequences from the Los Alamos database.ResultsPhylogenetic analysis based on partial sequences revealed that 65% (n = 48) of strains were CRF02_AG, 4% (n = 3) subtype F2, 1% each belonged to CRF06 (n = 1), CRF11 (n = 1), subtype G (n = 1), subtype D (n = 1), CRF22_01A1 (n = 1), and 26% (n = 18) were Unique Recombinant Forms (URFs). Most URFs contained CRF02_AG in one or two HIV gene fragments analyzed. Furthermore, pol sequences of 61 viruses revealed drug resistance in 55.5% of patients on therapy and 44% of drug naïve individuals in the RT and protease regions. Overall URFs that had a primary HIV subtype designation in the pol region showed higher HIV-1 p24 levels than other recombinant forms in cell culture based replication kinetics studies.ConclusionsOur results indicate that although CRF02_AG continues to be the predominant strain in Cameroon, phylogenetically the HIV epidemic is continuing to evolve as multiple recombinants of CRF02_AG and URFs were identified in the individuals studied. CRF02_AG recombinants that contained the pol region of a primary subtype showed higher replicative advantage than other variants. Identification of drug resistant strains in drug-naïve patients suggests that these viruses are being transmitted in the population studied. Our findings support the need for continued molecular surveillance in this region of West Central Africa and investigating impact of variants on diagnostics, viral load and drug resistance assays on an ongoing basis.

Status of diurnal primate populations at the former settlement of a displaced village in Cameroon

To understand whether or not primate populations recover in areas of abandoned human settlements, data are required that allow for site-specific comparison over time. Here, we present baseline information on the presence/absence and relative abundance of primate species at the abandoned settlement of the Ekundukundu village, relocated out of the Korup National Park in 2000. Between July 2007 and March 2008, 62 km of transects was surveyed for sightings and calls of primates. All eight species of diurnal primates reported in the KNP were confirmed: Cercopithecus nictitans ludio, C. mona, C. erythrotis camerunensis, C. pogonias, Procolobus pennantii preussi, Cercocebus torquatus, Mandrillus leucophaeus leucophaeus, and Pan troglodytes vellerosus. At old Ekundukundu, C. nictitans accounted for 65% of all primate group sightings. Overall, sighting frequency of primates (0.55 groups/km) was not significantly different from other park sectors surveyed by a previous observer (J. Linder) in 2004-2005. The data reported here will be useful in the long-term monitoring of primate populations in regenerating forest habitats of earlier human settlements.