Village Pharmacy Research Articles

Neem's Bioactive Marvels: A Therapeutic Review

Background: Azadirachta indica (Neem), an evergreen, temperature-tolerant flowering plant native to India and Myanmar, is often referred to as "The Village Pharmacy" or "Divine Tree." A member of the Meliaceae family, it has gained global recognition for its extensive health benefits. Almost every part of the neem tree, including leaves, blossoms, seeds, fruits, roots, and bark, finds medicinal use, both in traditional Ayurvedic practices and modern pharmaceutical preparations. Objective: This review aims to discuss the potential of A. indica and its bioactive compounds in medicine. It specifically focuses on their roles in various therapeutic applications such as anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-feedant, growth regulatory, dentistry, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-malarial, insect repellent, anti-hyperlepidemic, anti-cancer, and orodental protection. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted, reviewing ethno-pharmacological studies and scientific research that explore the traditional and current medicinal uses of A. indica. Sources included peer-reviewed journals and scientific databases. The review focused on the analysis of studies that detailed the use of various parts of the neem tree in the treatment of different ailments. Results: The review consolidated findings from numerous studies, highlighting over 40 bioactive compounds present in various parts of the neem tree. Significant therapeutic effects were reported, with anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic properties being the most prominent. Approximately 65% of the studies confirmed the anti-inflammatory effects, while around 60% supported anti-diabetic applications. Other notable findings included growth regulatory and anti-cancer properties, each supported by over 50% of the studies. Conclusion: Neem's diverse bioactive compounds demonstrate a wide range of therapeutic properties, underscoring its title as "The Village Pharmacy." The review confirms the substantial medicinal potential of neem, supporting its traditional uses and suggesting its valuable role in developing new pharmaceuticals. However, more clinical trials are recommended to validate these findings and ensure safe application.

In Silico Studies of Compounds Present in Azadirachta Indica (Neem) and Their Ability to Bind Hiv Integrase Protein

Azadirachta indica (Neem) is an evergreen tree that belongs to the Meliaceae family. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and grows worldwide. It is also known as the "village pharmacy" in India for its wide range of therapeutic and pharmacological properties. An in vitro study indicated that A. indica showed anti-HIV properties. However, the exact mechanism for the supposed anti-HIV properties remains unknown. This study aimed to construct an in-silico database of the compounds present in A. in-dica and propose a computational analysis of these compounds against HIV integrase. We performed a thorough literature search to gather relevant information on the plant compounds, including chemical structure, location within the plant, extraction method, and percent yield of each compound found in the plant. We took a comprehensive ap-proach to closely study the binding pockets of HIV integrase and performed molecular docking on A. indica compounds using Molecular Operating Envi-ronment. A deductive analysis of the docking energies of these compounds revealed thirty potential binders against HIV integrase proteins. We further validated these binders by comparing the ligand in-teractions to known inhibitors using Ligplot+, which identified the presence of numerous hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions at the protein binding pocket. In conclusion, we propose an un-derlying binding potential for several A. indica compounds with HIV integrase, yielding a potential mechanism for the anti-HIV activity of A. indica.

Peptides and low molecular weight polypeptides of Azadirachta indica seeds as new weapons against cancer cells and superbugs

BackgroundIn Ayurvedic practice, neem is an immensely important medicinal plant that's been part of traditional medications dating back to ˂ 5000 years. Its botanical name being A. indica while it is known as Nimba in Sanskrit. Prior to written records, all the parts of neem were used to treat and cure various ailments, infections, fevers, etc. Such wide range of application has led to it being termed “the village pharmacy.” The current study reports for the first time extraction and biological activity evaluation of these AMPs and polypeptides derived from the seeds of A. indica. Materials and methodThe present study intends to be the first to evaluate the antimicrobial and antitumoral properties of peptides and polypeptides on cancer cell lines from the total protein extracted from neem plant seeds by means of cell and molecular biology approaches. Protein extraction and precipitation was performed applying our optimized/standardized protocols. The antimicrobial activity was assayed efficiently using PAG-ADA method. The anticancer property of the extracted protein was detected by MTT assay, while MALDI-TOF/TOF and FTIR were performed to characterize the structure of these AMPs and polypeptides. ResultsTwo standardized protein extraction procedures were employed and the protein obtained from these two procedures were 262.67 ± 6.12 and, 248.7 ± 9.49 mg/g of seeds, respectively. Our study reports two novel antimicrobial peptides, and four polypeptides extracted from the dried seeds of A. indica. Further, we confirmed the bactericidal activity of the peptides and polypeptides extracted from A. indica seeds using PAG-ADA techniques against six different human pathogens. Remarkably high zone of growth inhibition against MRSA (30.0 ± 1.52) mm was noted. On the other hand, the total protein extracted possessed excellent anticancer activity with low IC50 values of 33.46 ± 2.63 and 20.83 ± 1.60 μg/mL against HeLa cells and 6.94 ± 0.10 and 6.87 ± 0.90 μg/mL against BT549 cell lines at 24 and 48 h, respectively. ConclusionsAMPs and polypeptides extracted from seeds of the medicinal plant A. indica exhibited bactericidal activity against different bacterial pathogens. In addition, the extract possessed good anticancer activity against the cervical cancer and breast cancer cell lines. Therefore, these promising findings pave the way for identification of plant-based bioactives responsible for the anticancer and antimicrobial attributes.

Pharmacy services for the 2019 F\xe9d\xe9ration Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Masters Championships in Gwangju, South Korea

BackgroundThe role of sports pharmacists is being emphasized in international athletic events. This study aimed to describe the pharmacy services for the 2019 Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Masters Championships in Gwangju, South Korea.MethodResearch focused on athletes and coaching staff who received medications after visiting medical centers and pharmacies located in the athletes’ village from July 5 to July 29, 2019. We collected daily results of pharmacy operation and prescription interventions. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, and were expressed as frequency (%).ResultsThroughout the tournament, 633 patients received medication at the athletes’ village pharmacy (gender: 338 men [53.4%], 295 women [46.6%]; nationality: 299 Korean [47.2%], 334 overseas players [52.8%]; patient type: 150 athletes [23.7%], 427 non-athletes [67.5%]). Therapy for musculoskeletal disorders was the most common (n = 29, 19.3%), and oral NSAIDs (n = 56, 22.0%) were the most frequently dispensed medication in athletes. Pharmacists intervened for 47 out of 491 prescriptions (9.6%), with dosage change (n = 21, 44.7%) being the most common intervention type.ConclusionSports pharmacists at FINA World Masters Championships played a pivotal role in ensuring the safe usage of medications by all participants, especially athletes. This study results will be a useful reference for pharmacy services at future international or domestic sports competitions.

English

BACKGROUND Azadirachta indica, commonly known as neem, neem tree or Indian lilac, Limbo, Nim, Nimba, Medusa and Vempu. It is typically grown in tropical and subtropical regions. Neem belongs to family meliaceae. Neem is a native tree of India. It is also called “village pharmacy of south Asia” (India) because of its enormous medicinal properties and people use it most of the time without knowing its multiple advantages. This study was done to know the efficacy of medicinal plant named Azadirachta indica (Neem) against pathogenic microorganisms and about its utility as disinfectant and floor cleaner. METHODS Agar well diffusion method, Culture plate method, inoculum preparation & its subculture methods were used to determine the antimicrobial activity of the neem leaf extract. Different concentrations of neem leaf extracts in culture plates were used for the study. In this method inhibited zones were measured. RESULTS Neem leaf extracts showed considerable antimicrobial activity against four target pathogens. In agar well diffusion method it showed maximum antimicrobial activity against Enterococcus and Staphylococcus aureus. Growth of inhibition was increased as the concentration of the neem extract in agar media increased and was maximum for Staphylococcus aureus. CONCLUSIONS The extract of A. indica, has antimicrobial activity against target pathogens Enterococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas, and E.coli. With the old medicinal knowledge on neem, better economic and therapeutic utilization can be done by using modern approaches of drug development. KEY WORDS Neem Leaf extract, Antimicrobial Activity, Agar Well Diffusion Test, Zone of Inhibition

An overview of Neem (Azadirachta indica) and its potential impact on health

Abstract Global health and medical practice seek to merge alternative medicine with evidence-based medicine for a better understanding of the metabolic process and its effects in the human body. An example is the use of complementary medicine like phytotherapy. Azadirachta indica (Neem), a tree originally from India and Myanmar, called by many “The village pharmacy” or “Divine tree” because of its many health properties. In recent times, Neem-derived extracts have been shown to work from anywhere from insect repellent, to supplements to lower inflammation, diabetic control, and even to combat cancer. Herein, we state the health benefits found in diverse compounds and extracts derived from Neem, highlighting the mechanisms and pathways in which Neem compounds produce their effects, while warning that the improper and unstandardized conditions to produce extracts can lead to health issues, particularly certain compounds might have damaging effects on the liver and kidneys.

A review of the anticancer activity of Azadirachta indica (Neem) in oral cancer

BackgroundAzadirachta indica (neem), belongs to the family of Meliaceae plants, is found in the Indian subcontinent. The neem tree is colloquially referred to as the village pharmacy due to its array of biological properties. Every part of the neem tree like its bark, leaves, sap, fruit, seeds, and twigs find a multitude of uses. It is customary to use them for management of skin diseases and various other infections.The anticancer properties of neem have been studied in the past and these include its ability to modulate the tumour environment, increase the cytotoxic ability of host monocytes and suppress the proliferation of tumour cells. The present review was conducted with the objective of scrutinizing and assimilating data about the usefulness Azadirachta indica in oral cancer from all the previously done work. Material and methodsA planned review was conducted of all the studies that investigated the role of Azadirachta indica in oral cancer. Literature search was carried out using PubMed, Scopus and Google scholar databases. In addition to electronic searching, hand searching, cross referencing and various internet engines were also used to collect data. The articles were perused and articles not pertinent to our search were omitted. Results and conclusionThe anticancer properties of neem were evaluated and the active constituents of neem have been demonstrated to unequivocally have preventive and therapeutic potential against oral cancer. Although, greater exploration of the anticancer properties of neem are required in order to effectively integrate it into the routine management of oral cancer.

Utilization of insecticide-treated bed nets and care-seeking for fever and its associated socio-demographic and geographical factors among under-five children in different regions: evidence from the Myanmar Demographic and Health Survey, 2015\u20132016

BackgroundMalaria is one of the top-five contributors to under-5 deaths in Myanmar. Use of insecticide-treated nets (ITN) and receiving early appropriate care in case of fever are the core interventions to prevent malaria and its complications and thereby deaths. This study aimed to assess among the under-five children, (a) utilization of ITNs and its associated factors, (b) care-seeking behaviour among their caregivers and its associated factors and uptake of malaria testing among those with fever in the last 2 weeks.MethodsThis was a cross sectional study using secondary analysis of Myanmar Demographic and Health Survey (MDHS) conducted in 2015–2016. Multivariable logistic regression was used to explore the factors associated with non-utilization of ITNs and not seeking care for fever. Effect sizes have been presented using odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals. Data analysis was done using svyset command in STATA to account for the multi-stage sampling design of the survey.ResultsOf 4597 alive under-five children, 80.5% did not sleep under an ITN last night. The factors significantly associated with non-utilization of ITNs were residing in malaria elimination regions (aOR = 2.0, 1.3–3.2), urban residence (aOR = 1.8, 1.2–2.9), staying in delta region (aOR = 8.7, 4.7–12.2), hilly region (aOR = 3.0, 2.0–4.6, and having highest wealth quintile (aOR = 1.8, 1.1–3.0). Around 16% had fever in the last 2 weeks, of whom 66.7% sought care for fever and 3% got tested for malaria. Nearly half (50.9%) of the caregivers sought care from a government health facility, followed by private hospital/doctor (27.8%), shop (8.0%), village health worker (4.4%) and pharmacy (3.1%). The factors associated with not seeking care for fever were residing in specific geographical locations (hilly, delta and central plains compared to coastal region) and having lowest wealth quintile (aOR = 2.3, 1.1–5.7).ConclusionsThis study highlighted that ownership and utilization of ITNs was very poor among under-5children. Care-seeking behaviour of the caregivers of under-5 children in case of fever was dismal with two-thirds not seeking care. The programme should seriously consider addressing these barriers if Myanmar is to achieve zero malaria deaths by 2030.

Listening to the Trees: Seven Words on the Coronavirus

Listening to the Trees: Seven Words on the Coronavirus Belden C. Lane (bio) For twenty-five years I’ve had a practice of praying with a 100-year-old cottonwood tree in the park across the street from my house. I call him Grandfather. As his leaves rustle in the wind in this time of crisis, I’ve imagined what he might be saying to the human community on behalf of the forests of the world. Click for larger view View full resolution Photo courtesy of Jim Taylor. 1. We’re in this together You aren’t alone. Trees neither catch nor carry the virus, but we stand alongside you nonetheless. We’re all part of a single-family, the body of Christ. We’re like the forty-seven thousand trees that make up an aspen grove in central Utah, spread over two hundred acres. What seems to be a small forest is actually a single organism. Every tree is genetically alike, sharing a common root system. That’s a good image for the entire earth community right now. It’s good to think of ourselves as integral parts of a large family unit—a superorganism. When we gracefully interact within that wider whole, new emergent behaviors—a new beauty—appears that hadn’t been there before. You see it in a swirling flock of larks or a churning school of fish. A little gesture here or there shifts the entire system in unpredictable ways. What happens out on the edge reverberates throughout the whole, changing everything. Every act of generosity and care that you exercise in this time has a greater effect than you imagine. Once you identify yourselves as part of a global household, you’ll be more sensitive to every shifting need within the system. Trees can introduce you to this vast symbiotic mystery. [End Page 137] 2. Spend time with a tree In times of fear and loneliness people find an unexpected solace among trees. In the desert of Beersheba, a distraught Elijah discovered hope under the shade of a broom tree. Anne Frank was sustained by a horse chestnut tree she could see from her attic window in Amsterdam. Victor Frankl tells of a dying woman at Auschwitz finding comfort in the blossoms of a tree outside her barracks. E. O. Wilson’s theory of biophilia says that human beings are genetically programmed to have an affiliation with trees and all the rest of nature. We belong to each other. In Norse creation myths, the first man and woman were formed from the dying stumps of ash and elm trees. Trees are referenced in the Bible more than any other creature in the natural world. For centuries they have been honored for their healing, medicinal properties. In India, the neem or lilac tree served as the “village pharmacy.” People used its leaves and sap for various skin and respiratory conditions. The bark of alder and willow trees has anti-inflammatory and fever-reducing qualities. The Lakota people consider the wind rustling in cottonwood leaves as soul-healing in itself. 3. Notice how trees care for each other Given your current need for “social distancing,” there’s much to be learned from trees. They regularly communicate with each other from a distance, sharing information and nutrients along underground fungal networks connecting their roots. These allow the trees to transfer water, nitrogen, and carbon as needed. Old cedar trees share nutrients with younger ones. A Douglas fir may even support a sickly paper birch nearby. In this “wood-wide web,” hub trees reach out to nurture a deeply interrelated community. Trees reach out to others in their heights as well. Thirty stories up, the canopies of redwood trees provide a habitat for a hidden world of epiphyte species—ferns, mosses, and liverworts. The generosity of trees is endless. Even in dying, they care for each other. Fallen trees become nurse logs that provide garden beds for young seedlings. Ninety percent of Sitka spruce trees on the Washington coast grow directly out of their decaying grandparents. 4. Remember that trees are survivors Old trees carry the memory of suffering borne by humans and trees alike. Think of the...

Supporting Medicines Adherence

People with chronic health conditions often need multiple medications taken at different times, and this can lead to the patient having difficulty managing all their medications.A new contract between the Ministry of Health, DHBs and pharmacies in 2012 signalled a shift to more patient-centric services. Proactive medicines management helps to reduce errors, while improving the quality of therapy, coordination of care, creating direct cost savings for the DHB and patient in medication management.This agreement re-allocated funding for the targeted care that pharmacies provide for patients with multiple medications and poor adherence. It better recognises pharmacy staff’s expertise and their contribution in primary care. Pharmacies required tools to support their patient-focused approach. Despite being an integral part of the care team, pharmacists typically had poor visibility of patients’ diagnosis and other relevant assessments and care plans.Participating in a 2015 pilot of a Medication Adherence Support Service (MASS) module on Whānau Tahi’s Connected Care (WTCC) platform enabled Waimauku Village Pharmacy to re-design its model of care and business practices. Multiple pharmacies from the Northern region contributed insights to MASS, which enables a pharmacist to assess a patient’s medications adherence. Based on the assessment, pharmacist and patient agree a Medications Adherence Plan. The pharmacist can also maintain a Managed List of Medications, implement patient specific tasks tailored to assist better medicine management and improve adherenceThe Medications Adherence Plan and Managed List of Medications are part of a patient’s Shared Care Plan and can be seen and updated by other care team members and authorised clinicians including those in emergency departments.The module overcomes many common barriers to adoption by including “launch in context” integration from Pharmacy Management Systems LOTS and Toniq. Delivered ‘as a service’, the solution can be accessed with no additional IT support within a pharmacy. In the Northern Region, it is part of the regional “e-Shared Care” solution so all users of e-Shared Care and other regional systems (e.g. Concerto) can access the Plan and List without any additional integration. Various DHBs nationwide are now exploring how to use WTCC MASS to support LTC-eligible patients.MASS is aiding the transition of pharmacy services from patient-initiated medicine supply to more proactive, patient-centred pharmacy care. More efficient business practices frees up staff to spend more time with patients and really understand their needs which in turn reduces the burden of care for higher-needs patients. It also enables pharmacists to maximise the value of the LTC component of the Community Pharmacy Services Agreement. At Waimauku Village Pharmacy, for example, pharmacist Robbie Hanon redesigned his whole pharmacy model of care for LTC patients, based on WTCC, resulting in a 50% increase in patients seen with no additional staff costs.Future gains may also be made through improved Information capture at each patient encounter and reporting to reduce the audit burden on pharmacies. Communication with fellow healthcare professionals and providers is supported, with pharmacies using recognisable clinical presentations, display of information and the fit with the wider patient -centric care planning.

Azadirachta indica: A Plant With Versatile Potential

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to present a recent update on the various uses of the indigenous plant Azadirachta indica, and to highlight its importance in various therapeutic fields in traditional as well as modern system of medicine. Design/methodology/approach: The literature review of the plant has been presented covering all the fields of research where this plant has been exploited so far. Findings: The plant possesses powerful antidermatonic and anthelmintic, insect repellent, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-septic, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer and strengthens the body’s overall immune responses. It is widely used in treating chronic malaria, bed bugs ulcer, bad teeth, syphilis, leprosy, spermicidal in preventing pregnancies and other diseases. Externally it’s the oil applied as an antiseptic for urticaria and chronic skin diseases like eczema, scabies, ring worm and maggot infested wounds. It is also used for killing lice, fleas, ticks insecticide and bacterial growth in mouth. Research limitations/implications: This tree’s beneficial values have been known for 4000 years is described by the native as the village pharmacy due to its wide spectrum of medicinal qualities. Practical implications: Over 65 patents have been derived from its various uses, which clearly indicates its practical utility in our daily lives. Social Implications: It has been traditionally used by families for curing household ailments, spermicidal in preventing pregnancies. Originality/value: The paper is an overview of various researches being carried out on the Neem.

Quantitative Analysis of Neem Research Using Bibexcel

main objective of the study is to examine the Neem Research. In India the Neem has been applied safely and effectively in medicine for a long time. Here we are calling this is as The village Pharmacy or Holy Tree. In Atharvana Veda, Upanishad and other Puranic texts Neem is celebrated as a medicinal plant. Medline covers the entire medicinal database. Five years data were downloaded from 2006 to 2010 with the help of PubMed Database. 392 results were obtained and the data were analyzed in different ways. Growth of literature, year-wise, author-wise, language-wise, country- wise and publication type wise have been analysed. These evaluations were done with the help of bibexcel tool.

Identification of mechanism of action of anti‐HIV properties of compounds present in Neem (Azadirachta indica) extracts

Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native to Indian subcontinent. In India, Neem is widely regarded as “village pharmacy” because almost each part of the plant has been used for several different medicinal purposes. Neem extract prepared from its bark, leaf and seed has been shown to possess anthelmintic, antifungal, antibacterial, and anti‐malarial properties. Recently, in an in vitro study crude extract prepared from Neem leaves showed anti‐HIV‐1 activity. However the exact mechanism of action of this remains unknown. Hence the major goal of this project is to identify the molecular target of anti‐HIV1 action of Neem compounds. We hypothesize that compounds found in Neem may interact with various proteins essential for either entry or replicative life cycle of the HIV‐1 virus. Using structural bioinformatics approaches a small database of all the compounds known to present in crude extracts of Azadirachta indica was created. In silico docking was next used to study binding affinity of these compounds with several different molecular target proteins important in HIV‐1 life cycle viz. gp41 entry protein, reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease. Predicted binding affinity and interaction pattern emerged from in silico studies was further used to match compounds with their most likely protein target. Interestingly, our deductive analyses showed that most compounds present in Neem extract interact very strongly with HIV‐1 protease, hence making it plausible molecular target. In vitro assays are currently underway to further verify our in silico data. This research is supported by funds from Kean University and Ronald E. McNair Scholars Program.

Antifungal activity of neem (Azardirachta indica) toddy

Neem (Azardirachta indica) is regarded as ‘village pharmacy’ in India due to its enormous use in the Indian villages as a folk medicine. Its different parts have been explored scientifically, except ‘Neem toddy’, which is a white secretion that exudes from the angle formed between the two major branches of old neem trees. The exact age of the tree upon the secretion of this white fluid is not known, nor why such a secretion occurs. It is normal, though rare, for such secretions to occur in old trees. The taste of neem toddy is bitter. The white milky liquid secretion, the ‘neem toddy’, was collected from the tree and assayed for the presence of phenolic acids by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The phenolic acids detected were caffeic, vanillic, o-coumaric, cinnamic and salicylic acids. It was further fractionated by ethyl acetate and this fraction was tested against some fungi for antifungal activity. It was observed to be highly antifungal in vitro. Field experiments also showed its high efficacy against balsam (Impatiens balsamina) powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum).

A community-based cluster survey on preferences for treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery in Zhengding county, Hebei province, China.

Passive surveillance on the burden of disease due to diarrhoea will underestimate the burden if families use healthcare providers outside the surveillance system. To study this issue, a community-based cluster survey was conducted during October 2001 in the catchment area for a passive surveillance study in Zhengding county, a rural area of northern China. Interviews were conducted at 7 randomly-selected households in each of 39 study villages. The respondents indicated where they sought initial care for cases of diarrhoea or dysentery among children or adults. In the absence of diarrhoea and dysentery cases in the household in the preceding four weeks, the respondents were asked about healthcare use for a hypothetical case. Overall, 80% (95% confidence interval [CI] 67-93%) would chose the village clinic, 11% village pharmacy (95% CI 1-22%), 4% township hospital (95% CI -1-10%), 4% self-treatment (95% CI 1-8%), and 1% county hospital (95% CI 0-2%). Approximately, 84% of patients would seek treatment for diarrhoea and dysentery at centres participating in passive surveillance, suggesting that passive surveillance will provide a relatively accurate assessment of burden of diarrhoea in Zhengding county.

Neem in Human and Plant Disease Therapy

As a therapeutic agent, neem is one of the most popular trees in traditional medicinal systems and is increasingly becoming important in herbal alternative therapy. The tree itself is considered a “village pharmacy” because of the well-established fact that every part of the tree has an application in curing human diseases. The tree has been a constant source of novel and structurally unique phytochemicals that can constitute the basis for the development of novel pharmaco-therapeutic agents against various human diseases. Being a prototype for the development of safer drugs and ecofriendly, pro-human health agrochemical agents against a vast variety of plant diseases, the tree always remains in the center of safe herbal drug and pesticide development in the service of mankind.

Neem in Human and Plant Disease Therapy

As a therapeutic agent, neem is one of the most popular trees in traditional medicinal systems and is increasingly becoming important in herbal alternative therapy. The tree itself is considered a "village pharmacy" because of the well-established fact that every part of the tree has an application in curing human diseases. The tree has been a constant source of novel and structurally unique phytochemicals that can constitute the basis for the development of novel pharmaco-therapeutic agents against various human diseases. Being a prototype for the development of safer drugs and ecofriendly, pro-human health agrochemical agents against a vast variety of plant diseases, the tree always remains in the center of safe herbal drug and pesticide development in the service of mankind.

Performance of village pharmacies and patient compliance after implementation of essential drug programme in rural Burkina Faso.

After implementation of a nation-wide essential drug programme in Burkina Faso a prospective study was undertaken consisting of non-participant observation in the health centre and in the village pharmacy, and of household interviews with the patients. The study covered all general consultations in nine health centres in three districts over a two-week period as well as all client-vendor contacts in the corresponding village pharmacies; comprising 313 patients in consultations and 498 clients in eight village pharmacies with 12 vendors involved in dispensing 908 drugs. Additionally patients were interviewed in their households. Performance and utilization of the village pharmacy: 82.0% of the drugs prescribed in the health centres were actually dispensed at the village pharmacy, 5.9% of the drugs were not available at the village pharmacy. Wrong drugs were dispensed in 2.1% of cases. 41.3% of the drugs dispensed in the village pharmacy were bought without a prescription. Differences are seen between the district and are put in relation to different onset of the essential drug programme. Patient compliance: Patients could recall the correct dosage for 68.3% of the drugs. Drug taking compliance was 63.1%, derived from the pills remaining in the households. 11.5% of the drugs had obviously been taken incorrectly to such an extent that the occurrence of undesired drug effects was likely. The study demonstrates the success of the essential drug programme not only in performance but also in acceptability and utilization by the population.