Vikings Research Articles

Forging History: Spade-Shaped Currency Bars, History and Identity in Central Norrland

In central Norrland a large number of spade-shaped currency bars have been recovered. Currency bars have been produced since the introduction of iron technology in the late pre-Roman Iron Age, which roughly coincides with the introduction of agriculture. It is suggested that the shape of the bars is referential to the socketed axe, due to the importance of the latter during this period of change. The currency bars were therefore associated with a mythical history and local identity. The youngest 14C-date shows that the bars became part of narratives that remained relevant throughout much of the Iron Age, up until the Viking Age.

Flying Daggers, Horse Whisperers and a Midwinter Sacrifice: Creating the Past during the Viking Age and Early Middle Ages

This paper sets out to trace the life history of a horse skull found in a bog in Scania in the year 1900. A parallel is drawn between the find of the horse and the famous painting, "Midwinter Sacrifice" by Carl Larsson. The story of the horse has opened up a discussion on how material culture is created and recreated in time and space, resulting in completely new communicative fields. The manifestation of the past and the reuse of Stone Age places and artefacts are brought into focus when the author discusses the location where the horse skull was originally found.

Veitstu hvé blóta skal? The Old Norse blót in the Light of Osteological Remains from Frösö Church, Jämtland, Sweden

The osteological remains from Frösö Church, Jämtland, have been re-analysed in order to understand the Viking Age rituals at the site and to study the blót, the Old Norse sacrifice and feast. Radiocarbon analyses of ani- mal and human bones date the rituals to the late Viking Age. A taphonomic study shows that especially brown bear and pig were of importance in the rituals. Butcher- ing marks reveal the processing of the carcasses as well as feasting. Further, bones and not whole carcasses seem to have been deposited on the ground. Human remains have been treated differently from the animal bones and may represent disturbed burials rather than sacrifices. Seasonal analysis indicates that the rituals took place in late autumn, early spring, and possibly around the summer solstice. The results of the osteological analy- ses are also discussed in relation to the written sources about the Old Norse blót.

Vikings, Rus, Varangians: The "Varangian Problem" in View of Ethnicity in Archaeology

The Scandinavian activity in Russia during the Viking Age has left traces in both the archaeological and the written material. In the 13th century Russian annals, "The Primary Chronicle", a story is told ofhow "Varangians from beyond the sea" founded the first Russian realm. The Varangians have been interpreted as Scandinavians, and the archaeological material has been connected with this story. This has resulted in a scientific debate, which in many cases has been steered by nationalistic feelings and political aims.

Means of Payment and the Use of Coins in the Viking Age Town of Birka in Sweden - Preliminary Results

The article discusses aspects of the Viking Age trade and exchange in relation to means of payment. The analyses are based on the minted and unminted silver, as well as on the weights that were retrieved during the 1990—95 excavations of the Black Earth in Birka. It is stated that silver was primarily used for other purposes than small-scale transactions during the 8th and 9th centuries. However, the situation seems to have changed during the 10th century. Silver, especially minted silver, was now highly fragmented and might have been used for exchange and trade in local products.

Towns, Plots, Crafts and Fertility - Traces of a Power Ideology

Change is always related to past experience. In this article it is argued that the spatial organization of the earliest towns in Scandinavia, in spite of their novelty, reflected old concepts and beliefs. The hypothesis is that the placing of buildings, the parcelling out of plots etc. in a Viking Age town such as Birka, referred to still vital concepts of fertility, creativity and wealth —and the power over these things. One aspect of the argument is that there existed a metaphorical relationship between the fertile field in the countryside and the productive town plot, where skilful smiths created valuable things.

The Social Qualia of Kuml – An Exploration of the Iconicity of Rune-Stones with Kuml Inscriptions from the Scandinavian Late Viking Age

This article discusses qualitative experiences (qualia) of Scandinavian Late Viking Age rune- stones from a semiotically theorized perspective. Rune-stones with kuml inscriptions receive par- ticular attention. Despite the fact that kuml referred to different material entities, such as rune-stone, other standing stones, and/or grave, it is suggested that they resembled one another on iconic grounds. The quality associated with the multiple qualia was a sensation of safety that resulted in shared experi- ences that had positive social values. The article demonstrates that the semiotics of Peirce can be of great value to archaeologists who want to delve deeper into the social analysis of things.

A Bit Arabic: Pseudo-Arabic Inscriptions on Viking Age Weights in Sweden and Expressions of Self-image

There are many Viking Age weights in Scandinavia, and not least in Swedcn. A few of the sphrrical weights with flat poles, which were used for weighing silver in trading situations, display so-called pseudo-Arabic inscriptions, i.e. writing which resembles Arabic but which is mostly illegible. Why did some people put Arabic-like writing on their weights, and what did they hope to achieve by this? These questions are discussed together with positive aspects of trade, interaction and encounters with foreigners, visual aspects of weights and weighing, as well as personal choices in the presentation of self-image.

The Mask(S) and Transformers of Historical Re-Enactment: Material Culture and Contemporary Vikings

The paper discusses the role of material culture for his- torical re-enactors of the Viking Age. Three issues are analysed: (a) the clothing and accessories worn by a typical contemporary warrior, craftsman and woman of the Viking times and the range of goods available for purchase at historical re-enactment markets, (b) the active and transformative aspect of material culture for present-day Vikings, (c) the paradox of how mirroring the material past by historical re-enactors is actually a deeply ahistorical category. The main con- clusion of this study is that historical re-enactment of the Viking Age is essentially about material culture. The paper is based on observations made during the Viking Week that took place at the Museum of Fote- viken (Sweden) on 24–30 June 2013.

The Water Dragon and the Snake Witch: Two Vendel Period Picture Stones from Gotland, Sweden

The style and iconography of two well­known picture stones are re­analysed. The Hablingbo Havor II pic­ ture stone shows a motif that occurs frequently in Got­ landic art from the Vendel Period onwards: the“Water Dragon”. It is suggested that this relates to an ideo­ logical connection between the dragon and the sea, where the sea is the dragon that ferries ships to distant shores. This is reflected not only in picture stones, but in Viking Age art in general. The iconography of När Smiss III (the “Snake Witch”) has been interpreted in a variety of ways, but special consideration is given to Peel’s (1999) suggestion that it relates closely to the Vi­ tastjärna myth from the 13th­century Guta Saga. The artistic style of the zoomorphs on both stones (Style II) is typically dated to the Vendel Period. It is suggested that Sune Lindqvist’s insistence that the stones date from before AD 600 comes from a long­standing de­ bate with Nils Åberg over the date and context of the east mound at Uppsala, and by association, the date of the artistic style found on Hablingbo Havor II and När Smiss III. This debate has been resolved in favour of Åberg’s interpretation. These two picture stones rep­ resent an artistic tradition that should be dated con­ servatively from the beginning of the 5th century AD to the middle of the 7th century AD.

The Mythical Forge and the Holy Chapel: From Paganism to Christianity at the Manorial Farm in Lockarp, Scania

Several archaeological investigations have taken place in the village of Lockarp, just south of Malmö, Scania. These investigations have revealed the remains of a large Viking Age and early medieval farm, or manor. The aim of this article is to discuss the transition from pagan- ism to Christianity on the basis of two buildings in the Lockarp manor that are interpreted as a forge and a chapel. The buildings were situated inside a courtyard, in what was interpreted as the private, innermost area of the manor. The author describes the manor’s social status and the location of these two buildings, and dis- cusses whether the buildings are visible signs of the re- ligious transition.

A Possible Ring Fort from the Late Viking Period in Helsingborg

This paper is based on the author's earlier archaeological excavations at St Clemens Church in Helsingborg as well as an investigation in 1987 immediately to the north of the church. On this occasion part of a ditch from a supposed medieval ring fort, estimated to be about a 7o m in diameter, was unexpectedly found. This discovery once again raised the question as to whether an early ring fort had existed here, as suggested by the place name. The probability of such is strengthened by the newly discovered ring forts in south-western Scania: Borgeby and Trelleborg. In terms of time these have been ranked with four circular fortresses in Denmark found much earlier, the dendrochronological dating of which is 980/981. The discoveries of the Scanian ring forts have thrown new light on south Scandinavian history during the period AD 950—1050. This paper can thus be regarded as a contribution to the debate.

Beside the Ocean: Coastal Landscapes at the Bay of Skaill, Marwick, and Birsay Bay, Orkney. Archaeological Research 2003–2018. By DavidGriffiths, JaneHarrison and MichaelAthanson. Oxford and Philadelphia: Oxbow Books. 2019. xxviii + 346 pp. £45. ISBN 978 1 78925 096 1 (hardback); ISBN 978 1 78925 097 8 (epub).

Beside the Ocean: Coastal Landscapes at the Bay of Skaill, Marwick, and Birsay Bay, Orkney. Archaeological Research 2003–2018. By DavidGriffiths, JaneHarrison and MichaelAthanson. Oxford and Philadelphia: Oxbow Books. 2019. xxviii + 346 pp. £45. ISBN 978 1 78925 096 1 (hardback); ISBN 978 1 78925 097 8 (epub).

Gaelic Influence in the Northumbrian Kingdom: The Golden Age and the Viking Age, by Fiona Edmonds

Gaelic Influence in the Northumbrian Kingdom: The Golden Age and the Viking Age, by Fiona Edmonds

Crossing the Maelstrom: New Departures in Viking Archaeology

This paper reviews the achievements and challenges of archaeological research on Viking Age northern Europe and explores potential avenues for future research. We identify the reemergence of comparative and cross-cultural perspectives along with a turn toward studying mobility and maritime expansion, fueled by the introduction of biomolecular and isotopic data. The study of identity has seen a shift from a focus on collective beliefs and ritual to issues of personal identity and presentation, with a corresponding shift in attention to individual burials and the “animated objects.” Network ontologies have brought new perspectives on the emergence of sea trade and urban nodes and to the significance of outfield production and resources. Field archaeology has seen an emphasis on elite manors, feasting halls, and monuments, as well as military sites and thing assembly places, using new data from remote sensing, geophysical surveys, geoarchaeology, and metal detectors. Concerns over current climate change have placed the study of environment as a key priority, in particular in the ecologically vulnerable North Atlantic settlements. Discussing future directions, we call for alignment between societal/economic and individual/cultural perspectives, and for more ethically grounded research. We point to diaspora theory and intersectionality as frameworks with the potential to integrate genomics, identity, and society, and to ecology as a framework for integrating landscape, mobility, and political power.

Agents of Death: Reassessing Social Agency and Gendered Narratives of Human Sacrifice in the Viking Age

This article seeks to approach the famous tenth-century account of the burial of a chieftain of the Rus, narrated by the Arab traveller Ibn Fadlan, in a new light. Placing focus on how gendered expectations have coloured the interpretation and subsequent archaeological use of this source, we argue that a new focus on the social agency of some of the central actors can open up alternative interpretations. Viewing the source in light of theories of human sacrifice in the Viking Age, we examine the promotion of culturally appropriate gendered roles, where women are often depicted as victims of male violence. In light of recent trends in theoretical approaches where gender is foregrounded, we perceive that a new focus on agency in such narratives can renew and rejuvenate important debates.

Lost and found: Viking Age human bones and textiles from Bjerringhøj, Denmark

The human remains recovered from the famous Bjerringhøj Viking Age burial in Denmark have been missing for more than 100 years. Recently, an assemblage of bones resembling those recorded at Bjerringhøj—some with adherent textiles—were discovered in a misplaced box in the National Museum of Denmark. Here, the authors use new skeletal and comparative textile analyses, along with radiocarbon dating, to confirm that the bones are indeed those from the Bjerringhøj burial. This rediscovery offers new data for interpreting Viking Age clothing, including the presence of long trousers, and emphasises the importance of reinvestigating old archaeological collections housed within museums and archives.

Wool Quality in Danish Prehistoric Textiles. 3000 Years of Sheep Wool and Textile Production

During the last 15 years wool fibre analyses have been made of Danish archaeological textiles dated from the Bronze to the Viking Ages (c.1800 BC - AD 1050). Because of the extraordinary preservation of these textiles the material is ideal for making qualified interpretations regarding wool fibre development and processing. The work has lead to an elaboration of the known methods used so far for classifying prehistoric wool. The methodology is explained and may be applied for similar studies. The fibre quality in the different archaeological periods is presented and changes in the wool fibres are defined. The principles for the processing of the wool are assessed for each period. In this way new and more specific knowledge has been acquired in regards to wool fibre development and the work, desires and choices of prehistoric textile crafts people.

Picts and Britons in the early medieval Irish church: travels west over the storm-swelled sea. By Oisín Plumb. Pp 202. Turnhout: Brepols. 2020. €55. - Gaelic influence on the Northumbrian kingdom: the golden age and the Viking age. By Fiona Edmonds. Pp 300. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 2019. £60.

Picts and Britons in the early medieval Irish church: travels west over the storm-swelled sea. By Oisín Plumb. Pp 202. Turnhout: Brepols. 2020. €55. - Gaelic influence on the Northumbrian kingdom: the golden age and the Viking age. By Fiona Edmonds. Pp 300. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 2019. £60. - Volume 45 Issue 167

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