Video Lectures Research Articles

The Effects of Social Cues in Self-Produced Micro Video Lectures on Parasocial Interaction, Motivational Interest, Extraneous Cognitive Load, and Concept Learning Performance: an Empirical Study in a Junior High School

Background and Aim: Videos are popular in the dissemination of knowledge at scale, which can be seen in various video-based platforms and educational disruption. However, inconsistent results were reported in studies. This research is designed to determine the effectiveness of social cues in self-produced micro video lectures on parasocial interaction, motivational interest, extraneous cognitive load, and concept learning performance and the relationship among them. Materials and Methods: Self-produced videos for learning concepts of morality and the rule of law in junior high schools were used as the treatment. Tests were used to determine concept learning performance and Likert scales were utilized to collect information on the other three variables. 248 students from the eighth grade in a public school were involved in the sample. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze differences among groups, and path analysis as well as was adopted to determine the relationship between variables. Results: There was no significant difference among the four groups on each variable. Parasocial interaction has a significant positive impact on motivational interest, motivational interest has a negative significant impact on extraneous cognitive load, and extraneous cognitive load has a negative significant impact on concept learning performance. Conclusion: The effects of the increment of types of social cues can be ignored in 6-minute self-produced video lectures. Students’ parasocial interaction can influence concept learning performance via the mediation of the cognition process and motivational factors. The extraneous cognitive load decreases with the stimulation of the motivational interest.

Teaching enthusiasm in video lectures: Evidence from two experimental studies

While teaching enthusiasm is crucial in traditional classroom settings, its impact on learning processes in digital learning environments still needs to be explored. This study examines the impact of teaching enthusiasm in instructional videos on cognitive and affective learning outcomes. Two separate experiments were conducted at different times: one with 9th-grade students and another with 10th-grade students. Participants viewed instructional videos including either higher or lower levels of teaching enthusiasm, and their cognitive learning outcomes (retention and transfer), social presence, lecture engagement, and motivation were measured. The study revealed that despite the significant difference between the groups regarding perceived teaching enthusiasm, higher enthusiasm did not significantly impact learning outcomes. The study suggests that increased enthusiasm in lecture videos may not necessarily enhance cognitive and affective learning outcomes. Further studies are needed to explore how instructional enthusiasm affects learning outcomes in different situations and with various types of videos.

Giving recorded video lectures new life.

Giving recorded video lectures new life.

Pedagogical agent positioning in external videos improves English academic presentation proficiency in desktop virtual reality settings

AbstractEnglish academic presentation (EAP) is an indispensable skill set of academic communication for university students. With the rapid development of desktop virtual reality (DVR), its application in language learning is worth exploring. The present study aimed to examine whether there is an improvement and difference in students' EAP by learning from the DVR with an in‐video pedagogical agent (PA) or an out‐of‐video PA. Adopting a between‐subject experimental design, a total of 64 students were randomly assigned to one of two group conditions depending on whether the PA was inside or outside the lecture video embedded in DVR. Participants' EAP performance, attention allocation and behavioural patterns were measured and analysed. As hypothesized, t‐tests, repeated ANOVA and lag sequence analysis showed that the participants who learned from the DVR with an out‐of‐video PA showed better learning performance, less attention allocation on content and more frequent behavioural patterns than those with an in‐video PA. Overall, our findings suggest that in a VR educational environment of video lectures, instructors should consider using an out‐of‐video PA to increase their social presence and improve students' learning experience. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic EAP is an indispensable skill set of academic communication for university students. PA is an effective social cue in video lectures to promote learning. VR has been widely applied in language learning. What this paper adds Reveals the relationship between the PA's positioning and the learners' EAP performance and deepens the understanding of the PA's positioning in video lectures of a DVR learning environment. Provides empirical analysis of natural eye‐tracking during the video learning in DVR scene and EAP data during the experimental condition. Students who learned from the DVR with an out‐of‐video PA showed better learning performance, less attention allocation on content and more frequent behavioural patterns than those with an in‐video PA. Implications for practice and/or policy Designers are encouraged to use DVR with an out‐of‐video PA to enhance students' social presence and learning experience.

Utilising Blended Learning for Large Classes to Deliver an Introductory Programming Course

Higher education institutions are constantly pushed to increase the student intake and produce industry-ready graduates. The pressure generally arises from the governing bodies, originating from socio-political factors. It is particularly evident in the field of Information Communication Technology (ICT) where there is a growing need for quality graduates. Undergraduate programmes in the field of ICT generally offer introductory computer programming courses that are mandatory at early stages of the degree programme. Consequently, the number of students registering for such courses can increase drastically. The students are coming from diversified backgrounds. While some students may have prior experience in computer programming, a larger majority may not have any prior knowledge or experience. Increased class size meets the constraint of the limited availability of physical classroom space and would require the class to be separated into smaller groups for face-to-face activities. Large classes are also challenged with the increased man-power requirement in terms of lecturers, instructors, and teaching assistants. Maintaining student engagement and interactivity becomes increasingly difficult in a large class. Grading of assessments becomes time-consuming and needs and requires increased manpower. Based on the observations and learning from an ongoing introductory programming course, this study evaluates the procedure for overcoming the challenges faced by the teaching staff, especially with a class size exceeding 1000. To cover the theoretical components, recorded video lectures are provided. The class is divided into groups consisting of approximately 100 students and live, online, interactive group discussions are conducted. The live, online smaller group discussions allow students to clarify doubts regarding the content. This also allows the distribution of the limited teaching and assistant staff. Students who need further assistance are encouraged to meet the teaching assistants physically. Thus, the workload is distributed effectively, and it helps ensure the dedicated support and attention is provided to the students. Auto graded programming assignments are effectively employed for formative and summative assessments, which reduces the grading workload significantly. The findings of this study provide insights on course design to effectively deliver the content and conduct assessments overcoming the challenges presented by increased class size.

Fragment of Interest: Personalized Video Fragment Recommendation with Inter-Fragment & Intra-Fragment Contextual Effect

In today’s fast-paced digital landscape, the attention span of users consuming video content is alarmingly brief, often as short as 15 seconds for music or entertainment videos and 6 minutes for lecture videos. This presents a significant challenge for video producers and platform providers as they seek to engage users with longer content. One promising solution involves recommending specific fragments within longer videos that align with individual user profiles. In this paper, we address this challenge by introducing a novel framework for video fragment recommendations, guided by three key insights. First, we implement a Self-Attention Block that captures the inter-fragment contextual effect, enhancing the relevance of recommendations. Second, we incorporate video-level preferences to ensure that the fragment recommendations are consistent with users’ overall interests. Third, we propose a Self-Attentive Herding Effect (SAHE) module to model the intra-fragment contextual effect, specifically the herding effect of time-sync comments within a fragment. To evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed method, we conduct extensive experiments comparing our model against the state-of-the-art approaches in terms of NDCG@K and Recall@K. Our results demonstrate that the model effectively leverages inter-fragment, intra-fragment contextual effects, and video-level preferences, outperforming existing methods. Additionally, we carry out empirical experiments to analyze the key components and parameters of the proposed model, providing further insights into its performance.

Voice‐over anatomy lectures created by AI‐voice cloning technology: A descriptive article

AbstractThe COVID‐19 pandemic revealed the pivotal role of digital learning and online lecture videos, leading a shift toward blended and flipped classrooms in the post‐pandemic era. This shift calls for development and (or) refreshment of novel online educational resources, such as Voice‐Over PowerPoint (VOPPT) presentations, specifically designed for asynchronous or synchronous learning methods. However, resource limitations often impede the timely delivery of high‐quality instructional materials. In this descriptive article, the use of AI‐voice cloning technology to automate the creation of VOPPT presentation has been explored. Descripts' Overdub tool, an AI‐voice cloning program, was trained on the 15‐min voice sample of an anatomy professor, and the synthesized voice was used to narrate presentations on inguinal canal and extrahepatic biliary anatomy. The educational use of this novel approach was evaluated based on the second‐year undergraduate medical students' qualitative feedback. Voice similarity analysis using Resemblyzer, an open‐source Python tool, showed a high similarity score of 0.92 between the cloned and original voices. Despite this, students raised concerns about the robotic voice, quick pace, punctuation problems, pronunciation difficulties, and expressed reservations about AI‐generated lecture narration. While the cloned voice closely matched the original, the AI‐generated narration fell short of capturing the nuanced details needed for an effective anatomy instruction. This uncovers AI's current limitations in the educational contexts but establishes a foundation for future progress in AI‐voice cloning technologies aimed at enhancing online educational resources for anatomy and medical education.

Course Modality and Student Outcomes: The Mediating Role of Connection

During the Covid-19 pandemic, institutions of higher education were required to use multiple teaching modalities, often in the same course, to facilitate student learning, giving students the option of attending face-to-face, attending live over zoom, or watching the recorded lecture videos asynchronously. Simultaneously, some students were forced to enroll in courses with modalities that did not align with what they believed to be most effective for them. This study examines the relationship between accounting students’ perceptions of learning in each modality and course outcomes. Students from nine introductory accounting classes were surveyed on several dimensions of the learning environment. Results demonstrate that the correlation between synchronous attendance (alignment of modality) and course grades is mediated (partially mediated) by students’ connection to their professor. Connection to their professor also fully and directly mediates synchronous attendance on satisfaction and, through sequential mediation in combination with student engagement, also fully mediates alignment of modality on student satisfaction. Regardless of modality (synchronous or asynchronous), or students’ ability to attend the modality that is most effective for their learning, students and professors can improve course outcomes (course grades and course satisfaction) by increasing student-professor connection.

Pedagogical technologies for teaching environmental engineering in the online learning system of higher education institution

The article outlines the pedagogical technologies for teaching environmental engineering in the online learning system of higher education institutions. There are proposed ways of developing educational technologies for teaching environmental engineering: active and collaborative learning, individualisation of training, use of video and audio materials, using electronic tools for evaluation of educational results, development of digital literacy, implementation of interactive online courses and professional communication and mentoring. There are presented the use of these technologies in the different aspects of environmental engineering, such as analysing water quality parameters, soil quality assessment, studying waste management practices, and studying the integration of renewable energy into the practice through virtual labs, online tests, video lectures, and collaborative projects. The proposed pedagogical technologies for teaching environmental engineering in the online learning system of higher education institutions were tested in the educational process. The Student's t-test was used for statistical calculation of the obtained experimental data. At the end of the experiment, there is a statistically significant difference between the mean values of the experimental and control groups. It can be claimed that the use of pedagogical technologies for teaching environmental engineering in the online learning system of higher education institutions is perspective.

Effect of educational interventions addressing blood groups and donation aspects on the knowledge and attitude of allied health sciences students

Objective: To determine the effect of educational interventions on knowledge and approach of Allied Health Sciences Students regarding blood groups and blood donation. Methods: It was a cross-sectional study conducted at the department of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine, University of Child Health Sciences, The Children’s Hospital, Lahore from October 2022-January 2023. A self-designed questionnaire was used to assess the baseline knowledge of students followed by educational interventions in the form of small group discussions, video lectures and practical demonstrations. Post-interventions assessment was done using the same questionnaire 30 days later. Data obtained was analyzed using SPSS-23 software. A p-Value <0.05 was considered significant. The reliability of the questionnaire was checked after the pilot study by using the SPSS-23 software and calculated Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.82. Results: Of the 99 participants, there were 13 males and 86 females with mean age of 21.41±1.478 years. Pre-interventions, majority participants had moderate knowledge (81.8%). Medical Lab technologists showed better baseline knowledge than the rest. Post-interventions, the level of knowledge among students increased to 94.9%. Pre-interventions, knowledge about blood groups and donation ranged from 14.1-79% and 25.5-77.8% correct responses respectively while post-interventions it went up to 92-100% for both aspects. The willingness to donate blood in future raised from 46.4% to 92.9%. Conclusions: Educational interventions were effective in improving the knowledge of Allied Health Sciences students about blood groups and blood donation. The enlightenment strategies positively influenced students towards the active participation in blood donation campaigns. doi: https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.40.10.8803 How to cite this: Saqlain N, Habib H, Riaz S, Hareem S. Effect of educational interventions addressing blood groups and donation aspects on the knowledge and attitude of allied health sciences students . Pak J Med Sci. 2024;40(10):2261-2266. doi: https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.40.10.8803 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Human or Humanoid Animated Pedagogical Avatars in Video Lectures: The Impact of the Knowledge Type on Learning Outcomes

This study examines the impacts of educational videos with human or humanoid animated pedagogical avatars (APAs) on cognitive, affective, and social learning outcomes in declarative and procedural knowledge contexts. A 2 × 2 factorial design was used, considering instructor type (human vs. humanoid APA) and knowledge type (declarative vs. procedural). The study involved 139 university students with no prior knowledge of the video content and was conducted in a human-computer interaction lab using an eye-tracking device. There were no significant differences in learning achievement, perceived lecture engagement, emotion, satisfaction, and social presence between the human and humanoid APA. However, learners showed greater visual interest in the human instructor, which influenced their interest in the learning content. Viewers of declarative knowledge videos showed more visual interest and achieved higher learning scores, while procedural videos increased lecture engagement, emotion, satisfaction, and social presence. The study suggests that humanoid APAs can effectively replace human instructors in educational videos and emphasizes the importance of considering knowledge types in video design to impact learning outcomes.

Inter-rater Reliability of Pressure Pain Threshold Between Experienced and Novice Examiners: A Case Study of 2 Educational Approaches.

Pressure Pain Threshold (PPT) is used to objectively assess pain in clinical settings and is a recommended part of physical therapist education. An individual who is experienced in administering PPT will frequently train a student on the technique; however, optimal educational approaches for this instruction have not yet been identified. Therefore, the purpose of this case report is to describe 2 educational approaches (unstructured lecture and structured feedback with clinical relevance) in training 2 separate cohorts of Doctor of Physical Therapy students in PPT. The primary outcome of interest was the inter-rater reliability of PPT between an experienced and novice examiner. Cohort 1 (n = 37) received a traditional lecture approach consisting of watching a prerecorded video online, an in-person lecture with demonstration of the technique, and time to practice. Cohort 2 (n = 34) received the prerecorded video online and lecture with demonstration; however, key additions included a clinical relevance discussion along with structured peer-to-peer and instructor-to-student feedback using a competency-based checklist. PPT was assessed by each student (novice examiner) and one instructor (experienced examiner). Inter-rater reliability of PPT between a novice and experienced examiner was evaluated. Inter-rater reliability improved from poor/moderate (intraclass correlation coefficient low back = 0.46 [0.16-0.68], quadriceps = 0.54 [0.26-0.73]) to good (low back = 0.84 [0.67-0.92], quadriceps = 0.90 [0.79-0.95]) after the addition of structured feedback. Structured feedback from peers and instructors may be useful when learning PPT and improving inter-rater reliability, which has implications for training students within a laboratory or classroom. However, this case study would need to be replicated in an experimental design to examine the effects of varying types of feedback on learning outcomes.

Visualizing speech styles in captions for deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers

Speech styles such as extension, emphasis, and pause play an important role in capturing the audience's attention and conveying a message accurately. Unfortunately, it is challenging for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing (DHH) people to enjoy these benefits when watching lectures with common captions. In this paper, we propose a new caption system that automatically analyzes speech styles from audio and visualizes them using visualization elements such as punctuation, paint-on, color, and boldness. We conducted a comparative study with 26 DHH viewers and found that the proposed caption system enabled them to recognize the speaker's speech style in lectures. As a result, the DHH viewers were able to watch lecture videos more vividly and were more engaged with the lectures. In particular, punctuation can be a practical solution to visualize speech styles and ensure legibility. Participants expressed a desire to use our caption system in their daily lives, providing valuable insights for future sound-visualized caption research.

Utilising digital education to enhance learning accessibility in isolated areas

Introduction: In instances where conventional educational institutions are either unavailable or ineffective, online platforms offer a distinctive opportunity to obtain quality education regardless of geographical location. The advantages of online learning include flexible scheduling, access to educational content, and the capacity to communicate with instructors and other students via the Internet. Concurrently, numerous challenges are encountered by students and teachers utilising online platforms, including unstable internet connections and the need to self-organise the learning process.Objective: To determine the role and efficacy of online learning in providing access to education in remote regions. Methods : an analytical literature review, a meta-analysis, a quality of education analysis, a learning effectiveness determination, and a statistical data analysis. Type of research is observational research, timeframe of the research is an academic semester, field of research is the educational process in higher education, platform used for the research is the higher education environment, type of statistics is descriptive.Results : The article compares the use of standard online tools and interactive online tools to provide access to education in remote regions. The means of monitoring the results of higher education students include educational test simulators and gamified tasks.Conclusions : A comparison of learning outcomes and self-assessment of higher education students studying mathematics and English using traditional and interactive online tools has revealed the effectiveness of the latter: interactive video lectures and online courses, virtual laboratories and mobile applications, AR and VR explanations, chatbots, forums, and online conferences

Instructor Gender Influences Non-Major’s Drawings of an Entomologist

The Draw-a-Scientist Test (DAST) has been extensively researched as a projective test used to assess individuals’ perceptions of scientists. This study investigated student perceptions of entomologists and compared responses of students taught by a male instructor with responses of students who viewed video lectures recorded by the male instructor but interacted with a female instructor. Data were collected from two sections of an introductory entomology course at Oklahoma State University, with one section taught by a male instructor and the other by a female instructor using lecture recordings of the male instructor. Drawings were analyzed for characteristics including facial expression, clothing, equipment, presence of insects, race, and gender. The majority of drawings included smiling faces, glasses, and entomology equipment, while few students illustrated persons of color. Specific criteria to classify drawn entomologists as male, female, or non-gender figures were developed and used to assess drawings. The majority of students in both sections drew male entomologists, consistent with previous DAST studies where male scientists predominate. However, a higher proportion of female entomologists were depicted in the section who interacted with the female instructor. These findings emphasize the impact of instructor gender on students’ perceptions and stereotypes. Even when lectures are given by a male instructor, interaction with a female instructor can positively influence the gender representation in students’ drawings. Efforts should be made to promote diversity and inclusivity in instruction to increase underrepresented groups in science. This study contributes criteria to assess student depictions of gender and provides valuable insights into the gender representation and characteristics depicted in student drawings of entomologists. It highlights the influence of instructor gender on students’ perceptions and stereotypes in entomology and likely applies to other fields of biology.

Student Survey on Video Lectures for College Physics 1—Mechanics

Student Survey on Video Lectures for College Physics 1—Mechanics

Implementing Learner Autonomy in English as a Foreign Language Classroom Through a Flipped Classroom Pedagogical Approach

This study is a small-scale action research on the problem of using the Flipped Classroom pedagogical approach to enhance learner autonomy in the target group of high school students in an EFL classroom. The main stages of the research were conducted in the spring semester of the academic year of 2023/24. The participants of the study are seven Ukrainian Grade 9 students and three teachers. The research aims at designing and implementing a method for engaging learners in autonomous practices through the Flipped Classroom model. The methodological basis of this study is the works of (Benson & Voller, 2014), the Flipped Learning Network (2014), (Moore, 2015), (Velegol, Zappe, & Mahoney, 2015), (O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015), (Hung, 2015), (Huang & Hong, 2016), (Nichols, Burgh, & Kennedy, 2017), (Olakanmi, 2017), (Låg & Sæle, 2019), (Jung, Park, Kim, & Park, 2022), (Little, 2022) and other scientists. In this research, the mixed-method approach is used; the quantitative and qualitative data have been collected through guided observation, surveys (teacher interviews and student questionnaires), and mathematical statistics (descriptive and frequency methods). The essence of the designed method lies in the gradual engagement of students in reviewing short video lectures and reading relevant input before class; then, in class, discussing content and doing quizzes and exercises to reinforce understanding, and, finally, actively participating in creating content-related presentations or projects. The results of this study demonstrate that the Flipped Classroom approach has a considerable impact on learner self-awareness, beliefs, and attitudes implemented in autonomous classroom practices, in particular: effective use of free time for English studying; increased motivation to explore new content and understanding it; perception of a teacher as a facilitator, suggesting a move towards a more student-centered or collaborative learning environment; perception of knowledge as something to be gained rather than “transmitted”, taking on responsibility for evaluating learning outcomes through self-assessment or collaborative evaluation methods. Nevertheless, there are some limitations to using FC in the English language classroom: the willingness of teachers to apply learner-centered methods; the willingness of students to take responsibility for their learning; learners’ cognitive and metacognitive skills; the difficulty of the learning material meant for flipping (self-study), access to resources and technology. The results of this study can be used by researchers and practitioners working in the sectors of secondary and tertiary education.

Comparing fourth-year medical students’ procedural surgical skill learning outcomes between third-person point-of-view video lectures and first-person point-of-view immersive virtual reality: a pilot study of surgically implanting a subdermal drain on cadavers

The use of virtual reality (VR) training in medical school education has increased over the last decade partly due to coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) and due to technology advancements in this integrative area. As medical students are being trained in new pedagogical interventions, it is important to drill-down and focus on the areas of most translational concern for assessing their competency and proficiency. Thus, the present pilot study sought to evaluate a group of fourth-year medical students’ ability to learn a modified medical school curriculum on implementing a subdermal drain by first learning how to stitch on a silicone model (i.e., proper stitching only) and then being randomly assigned to either a third-person point-of-view (TP-POV) or first-person point-of-view (FP-POV) immersive VR group to learn how to conduct the surgical procedure (i.e., conceptually and procedurally). Then, the participants’ surgical procedural motor skills were assessed on a single attempt to demonstrate their competency and proficiency on a cadaver. The results showed that the pedagogical learning differences in FP-POV immersive VR improved the cleanliness and accuracy of the surgical dissection movement and drain placement with 100% proficiency in the first attempt at implementing this surgical technique on a cadaver. Additionally, there was statistically significant improvement in the dissection movement (p < 0.05*) and the tension test (p < 0.01**) in the FP-POV group compared to the TP-POV group, even with a small sample size in the present pilot study. These findings offer unique training opportunities to be considered when designing future VR curriculum with the suggested use of repeated-measures designs on the surgical procedural motor skills to assess learning curves and their potential translations in reducing operating room errors, costs, planning and scheduling times, and surgery overlaps, thereby positively contributing to a more efficient and safer OR surgical experience by staff and patients in the near future.

NGHIÊN CỨU TỔNG QUAN VIỆC SỬ DỤNG ỨNG DỤNG TRÍ TUỆ NHÂN TẠO TRONG VIỆC XÂY DỰNG VIDEO HỌC LIỆU SỐ

Developing digital learning materials, especially video lectures, is becoming an important issue in education. The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) has made the creation of videos easier compared to the traditional approach. However, the education sector has yet to benefit from these advanced technologies fully. This research explores the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in creating digital learning videos. The study uses 43 selected articles and the PRISMA analysis model to search, classify, and content-filter the results. The findings show a noticeable growth in using AI to create digital learning videos, with 33 topics formed from keywords and articles published in various journals. The most influential works include automatic content extraction from videos and virtual teachers, and there is significant interest in ChatGPT. The main research topics include • developing effective AI models to convert text to video, • integrating personalization and interaction features, and • applying these digital learning videos in education and training. However, many issues remain to be researched, such as enhancing the context-understanding capabilities of AI models and building frameworks to evaluate the effectiveness of videos. AI-generated videos' quality, reliability, and flexibility are significant unresolved challenges, opening up research gaps for future scholars. Keywords: Artificial Intelligence (AI); video; education; learning; PRISMA.

The interactive effects of drawing task, prompt format, and visual aids on video-based learning: Attention and drawing accuracy as mediators

This study investigated the effects of open- and closed-book learning conditions either accompanied by visual aids or without on learners’ attention, drawing accuracy, and learning performance. Participants were 127 undergraduate learners randomly assigned to view either an open- or closed-book prompt, who then watched either a video lecture accompanied by visual aids or one without (i.e. visuals provided vs. no visuals). The results showed that for learners who were provided with visual aids, compared to the open-book condition, those in the closed-book condition demonstrated higher eye blink rate as well as improved immediate and delayed test scores. However, this advantage was not observed in the condition with no visual materials. Mediation analysis showed that increased immediate test scores in the visuals provided condition was due partly to improved drawing accuracy. Multiple mediation analyses showed that the open-book with visuals provided condition led to lower eye blink rate, increased fixation count, and improved drawing accuracy, which collectively resulted in decreased immediate test performance. These findings have implications for educators and instructional designers regarding how to tailor effective learning strategies; specifically, educators could consider using closed-book learning conditions with visual aids to enhance learners’ attention and improve their learning performance.