Video Game Content Research Articles

Attentional Bias and Reactive Attacks in Video Game Player

Video games are widely popular their impacts on player addiction are thus intensively investigated. Considering the importance of reward in addiction, this study investigated whether high penalty feedback has a promoting effect on the maintenance of the reward value of the game stimulation. In Experiment 1, the characteristics of attentional bias of game stimulation were tested using the dot-probe task paradigm. In Experiment 2, changes in the heart rate of game players and non-game players during the game were compared to investigate the physiological activation state of the game players. In Experiment 3, the impacts of different penalties on the aggressive behavior of game players were analyzed. Our results showed that long-term game players exhibited attentional bias toward the game stimuli, which was mainly reflected in terms of the orientation characteristics of attention; during a game, the player’s high physiological activation helped the game stimulus to maintain the reward value in the habitual level. High intensity penalty feedback can maintain the reactive attack state of game players, which helped to maintain the players in a state of high physiological activation during the game. From the perspective of “learning in games” in the Confucian culture, the approach and content of video games must be actively improved.

Violent video games increase voice stress: An experimental study.

In most violent video games, players are put in stressful situations where enemies are trying to kill them. This is reflected by the results of previous research showing that violent video games increase physiological arousal (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, galvanic skin response). In this study, I investigate the effect of playing violent video games on emotional stress detected by a new methodology: voice analysis. Because changes and disturbances in vocal responses can be understood as reactions to emotional stress, I expected that violent videogames would increase voice stress. Participants (N 87 French university students; 40% female; Mage 21.2) played either a violent or nonviolent game for 20 min. After game play, participants read a stressprovoking story aloud while their voices were recorded. Voice recordings were analyzed to determine the amount of emotional stress in participants’ voices using Automated Voice Stress Analysis. As hypothesized, voice stress was higher among violent video game players than among nonviolent video game players. Voice stress was also higher for men than for women. No interaction between video game content and the gender of participants was observed. This study confirms that violent video games have physiological consequences on players, as predicted by the General Aggression Model and also introduces a promising nonobtrusive physiological measure in media psychology research.

What’s next?: the LGBTQ video game archive

ABSTRACTThis essay describes the author’s new project: a digital archive documenting the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) content in video games. The LGBTQ game archive covers approximately 30 decades of game content at present, and nearly 500 games. This essay describes the project’s origins, the methods used to research the game content, and some initial findings. Finally, some particular surprises from the project are discussed, which point to areas for future LGBTQ games research.

Violent video game effects on salivary cortisol, arousal, and aggressive thoughts in children

An experiment investigated the effects of violent content in video games on two physiological indicators of the fight-or-flight response (cortisol and cardiovascular changes) and on accessibility of aggressive thoughts in children. Participants played a randomly assigned violent or nonviolent video game, rated the game on several dimensions, and did a word completion task. Results showed that the violent video game increased cortisol and (for boys) cardiovascular arousal (relative to baseline) more than did the equally exciting nonviolent game. The violent game also increased the accessibility of aggressive thoughts. The cortisol findings in particular suggest that playing a violent video game may activate the sympathetic nervous system and elicit a fight-or-flight type response in children. Theoretical implications and future research are discussed.

When newbies and veterans play together: The effect of video game content, context and experience on cooperation

This paper explores the effect of video game content, context and experience on cooperative behavior over three research studies. Study 1 is a cross-sectional correlation study exploring the relationship between the video game team-play frequency and pro-social behavior, Study 2 is a 2 (game content: violent video game and neutral video game) × 2 (game context: single-play and team-play) design with the dependent variable being cooperative behavior and Study 3 is a single factor design experiment which examines the effect of the gaming experience on cooperative behavior under a collaborative context. The main findings were that the team-play frequency had a positive correlation with pro-social behavior, and pro-social video game exposure significantly predicted pro-social behavior. Collaborative play was found to significantly increase cooperation in both violent and neutral video games. However, the level of gaming experience tended to moderate the relationship between collaborative play and the level of cooperation.

Harsh Words and Deeds: Systematic Content Analyses of Offensive User Behavior in the Virtual Environments of Online First-Person Shooter Games

Extensive research has examined the prevalence and potential effects of potentially harmful video game content produced by game developers, such as violence, profanity, and sexualized portrayals, but much less research has systematically examined the large range of potentially problematic content produced by players in increasingly popular online games. This player-generated content may actually be of more social concern than content programmed in the games, as it is largely undocumented and unaddressed by industry ratings and consumer advisory groups. While potential effects of such antisocial and offensive online game content are not well understood, a first step toward exploring this concern is systematic documentation of offensive user-generated content in online games. To that end, a pair of large-scale systematic content analyses documented a range of offensive user-generated content, including utterances, text, and images, from a total of more than 2,500 users in popular first-person shooter video games. Findings indicated that some content, such as profanity, were frequent among users who spoke during games. More offensive and potentially harmful content such as racial slurs was proportionally very rare but frequent enough to be encountered often by regular game players. Implications for further research and practice are discussed. Results should be interpreted tentatively based on this relatively unprecedented systematic investigation, should not be interpreted as evidence that online shooter games are harmful or lack healthy elements, and should not be extrapolated to other online game genres and communities until further research is conducted.

Violent Video Games Exposed: A Blow by Blow Account of Senseless Violence in Games

ABSTRACTViolent video game (VVG) use has repeatedly been found to be associated with hostile expectations about others, desensitization to violence, decreased empathy and prosocial behavior, and aggressive thoughts and behaviors. Although these research findings have been widely publicized, VVGs remain the most extensively played games and represent a multi-billion dollar industry. Although VVGs are typically rated “mature,” indicating they are not suitable for youths, they are often purchased for youths. This may be in part because there is currently no system available to consumers that thoroughly describes the content of video games, and much of the public is unaware of the types of violence that characterize game play. The purpose of this paper is to describe the violent content of some of the top VVGs, based on sales. For the purposes of this issue, acts of senseless, unprovoked violence will be described in detail.

Commentary: Playing the computer game tetris prior to viewing traumatic film material and subsequent intrusive memories: examining proactive interference.

Unwanted visual intrusions are characteristic of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). One innovative intervention for inhibiting unwanted intrusions is playing the Tetris videogame, described as a “cognitive vaccine” in preventing intrusions after traumatic events (Holmes et al., 2009). Playing Tetris consumes heavy visuospatial working memory resources that potentially compete with cognitive resources required for elaboration of visual imagery. Since Holmes et al.'s (2009) study, other studies have used Tetris to inhibit intrusive imagery (Holmes et al., 2010; Skorka-Brown et al., 2014, 2015; James et al., 2015a,b). However, these have not assessed the role of videogame content after playing in relation to Game Transfer Phenomena (GTP) (Ortiz de Gortari and Griffiths, 2014a,b,c, 2015a,b). GTP research has investigated non-volitional experiences (e.g., altered sensorial perceptions and automatic mental processes/behaviors) mostly experienced after gaming. Gamers often report sensorial (visual/auditory) intrusions after playing (e.g., visual and auditory imagery, hallucinations) (Ortiz de Gortari et al., 2011; Ortiz de Gortari and Griffiths, 2014a,b). In a survey of 2362 gamers, most (77%) had visualized images from a variety of videogames (including tile-puzzle games) with closed-eyes, and one-third (31%) had visualized images with open-eyes (Ortiz de Gortari and Griffiths, 2015b). Other studies have experimentally induced videogame-related visualizations at sleep onset (Stickgold et al., 2000; Wamsley et al., 2010; Kusse et al., 2012). James et al. (2015a,b) study was the first to make explicit reference to GTP (referred to as the “Tetris effect” [TE]). Ortiz de Gortari and Griffiths (2012) argued the TE term is misleading as it suggests repetition is the core of transfer effects. However, other factors are involved. Research concerning GTP makes the distinction between sensorial modalities facilitating the assessment of non-volitional phenomena with videogame content that occur along the continuum from mild to severe (Ortiz de Gortari and Griffiths, under review). Moreover, the descriptive constructs of GTP are empirically based on analysis of 3500 + gamers and have been examined via confirmatory factor analysis demonstrating good reliability and validity (Ortiz de Gortari et al., 2015). James et al. (2015a,b) tested if playing Tetris offered a protective mechanism against re-experiencing traumatic events. Healthy participants (n = 56) were randomly assigned to either playing Tetris for 11 min, or doing nothing before exposure to a 12-min traumatic film. Image-base memories about the film were then registered in a 1-week dairy. However, playing Tetris as a proactive interference task before watching the film did not show significant results. James and colleagues offered different explanations including: (i) duration of the task in relation to film length, (ii) temporal contingencies between the tasks, (iii) differences between the task types, (iv) videogame types used, and (v) reactivation of gameplay during the film for aided interference. These explanations are discussed in relation to GTP literature.

Commentary: Musical hallucinations: review of treatment effects.

Commentary: Musical hallucinations: review of treatment effects.

Violent video games and morality: a meta-ethical approach

This paper considers what it is about violent video games that leads one reasonably minded person to declare That is immoral while another denies it. Three interpretations of video game content are discussed: reductionist, narrow, and broad. It is argued that a broad interpretation is required for a moral objection to be justified. It is further argued that understanding the meaning of moral utterances--like x is immoral--is important to an understanding of why there is a lack of moral consensus when it comes to the content of violent video games. Constructive ecumenical expressivism is presented as a means of explaining what it is that we are doing when we make moral pronouncements and why, when it comes to video game content, differing moral attitudes abound. Constructive ecumenical expressivism is also presented as a means of illuminating what would be required for moral consensus to be achieved.

Development of a Coding Instrument to Assess the Quality and Content of Anti-Tobacco Video Games.

Previous research has shown the use of electronic video games as an effective method for increasing content knowledge about the risks of drugs and alcohol use for adolescents. Although best practice suggests that theory, health communication strategies, and game appeal are important characteristics for developing games, no instruments are currently available to examine the quality and content of tobacco prevention and cessation electronic games. This study presents the systematic development of a coding instrument to measure the quality, use of theory, and health communication strategies of tobacco cessation and prevention electronic games. Using previous research and expert review, a content analysis coding instrument measuring 67 characteristics was developed with three overarching categories: type and quality of games, theory and approach, and type and format of messages. Two trained coders applied the instrument to 88 games on four platforms (personal computer, Nintendo DS, iPhone, and Android phone) to field test the instrument. Cohen's kappa for each item ranged from 0.66 to 1.00, with an average kappa value of 0.97. Future research can adapt this coding instrument to games addressing other health issues. In addition, the instrument questions can serve as a useful guide for evidence-based game development.

Deformation of the Self-consciousness of Adolescents as a Consequence of Psychological Addiction to Computer Games

This paper is devoted to the problem of psychological addiction to video games. Features of influence of video games on the self-consciousness of adolescents are indicated. Distinctions between dependent behavior and a condition of preoccupation with video games are specified. Results of work which was carried out in Russia are designated. The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of computer games on the “self-image” teenagers. 233 adolescents aged 13-15 years acted in quality of probationers. The author's modification of the semantic differential was used to test assumptions about the similarity of “self-ideal” image and the image of the computer hero in adolescents, overly fascinated by video games. Factor analysis and cluster analysis was used as methods of data processing. The analysis of the content of modern popular video games was carried out. Features of the preventive work with adolescents, who are prone to addiction to video games, are described.

How the new generation of consoles have accelerated the need to preserve digital content – part 2

Purpose – This two-part paper aims to expose the challenges and establish the necessity of preserving digital content, with a focus on console video games. Part two identifies the preservation challenges, methods of preserving digital content and the current efforts by preservation groups and organizations. Design/methodology/approach – Through a method of identifying a video game content which has been lost, or at risk of being lost, describing the challenges presented by the format, and addressing the current preservation efforts, this paper serves as a brief retrospective of the issues and a guide to extending the conversation. Findings – While preserving video game content faces many challenges due to copyright issues and risks associated with digital format, some institutions have made progress that other libraries can follow. Originality/value – With special attention to the non-gamer, the conversation on video game preservation continues by focusing on the challenges and current efforts.

Testing the reliability and validity of different measures of violent video game use in the United States, Singapore, and Germany.

To examine the potential link between violent video game play and aggressive behavior, reliable and valid measures of the level of violence in video games are required. A range of different approaches have been used in the literature, and it is not clear to what extent they converge or measure different constructs. To address this question, three large longitudinal data sets covering at least 12 months were used from the United States (N 1,232), Singapore (N 3,024), and Germany (N 1,715). Violent content was measured through user ratings, expert ratings, and official agency ratings of individual titles as well as through expert ratings of game genres. The different measures were linked to aggressive behavior both cross-sectionally and longitudinally in all three countries and to the normative acceptance of aggression in Germany and Singapore. User ratings, expert ratings, and official agency ratings were found to be reliable. They showed substantial correlations within each culture as well as between the different cultures, indicating high convergent validity. Measures using nominations of game titles and measures using genre lists showed similar relationships with aggressive behavior and aggressive norms, both concurrently and prospectively over 12 months. Recommendations for a best practice approach to the assessment of violent content in video games are derived from the findings.

Beyond the First Amendment: Shaping the Contours of Commercial Speech in Video Games, Virtual Worlds and Social Media

In Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association (2011), the Supreme Court stated unequivocally that video games are entitled to the same broad First Amendment protections as those afforded to other media. But just as laws and regulations distinguish newspaper, magazine, and television content from the advertising sold in those media, new policies are required to distinguish the communicative content of video games, virtual worlds, and social media from the advertising and commercial purpose activity conducted in those media. Particularly in the area of publicity rights, states and courts have struggled to delineate those contours. This Article outlines the emerging contours of commercial speech under recent First Amendment jurisprudence, highlighting the free speech rights of publishers, participants, and players while shielding individuals from unfair commercial exploitation and protecting the public from misleading advertising.

Feasibility of an Online and Mobile Videogame Curriculum for Teaching Children Safe and Healthy Cellphone and Internet Behaviors.

Increased prevalence and penetration of cellphone and mobile Internet use have raised significant concerns about children's health and safety by offering new spaces for cyberbullying, harassment, and sexual misconduct. "Cyberhero Mobile Safety" is a videogame-based education program designed using tenets of the capacity model with the goal of instilling the knowledge and skills necessary to safely and productively navigate the mobile online environment. This study evaluates its usability, appeal, and perceived impact and usefulness. Six educational videogames were part of a program delivered to 3rd-6th grade students (n=108) across six public schools in Upstate New York. Videogame play was electronically captured to evaluate usability. Likeability, acceptability, and perceived usefulness of videogame content were evaluated through postgame questionnaires. Videogame usability criteria were achieved on 82.7 percent of the students' gameplays. On a scale from 1 (low) to 5 (high), mean ratings were 4.09 (standard deviation [SD]=1.28) for likeability, 3.54 (SD=1.61) for acceptability, and 4.16 (SD=1.33) for perceived message usefulness. The "Cyberhero Mobile Safety" program is a feasible and potentially effective platform for delivering information about safe and healthy cellphone and Internet use to children. Results support the use of the capacity model to design educational videogames because games that aligned with theory principles were reported as having the most impact and being the most useful at shifting children's online behaviors. Future research should directly test the individual components of the capacity model to inform educational game design.

Interactivity, user-generated content and video game: an ethnographic study of Animal Crossing: Wild World

This article examines interactivity and user-generated content in video games with an ethnographic case study of a life simulation video game Animal Crossing: Wild World. Interactive elements in the video game give players a sense of creation and control as well as facilitate user-generated content. However, equation of interactivity with social democratization is problematic in two ways: players' interactivity is conditioned by pre-given structures in game and it is utilized as consumer loyalty in markets. Exploring how players develop game narratives and collaborate with each other, this paper argues that video games function ideologically. It suggests that the dominant ideologies in Animal Crossing such as a hard work ethic and consumerism are not only given by game creators but also voluntarily emphasized and accepted by players.

Cross‐sectional associations between violent video and computer game playing and weapon carrying in a national cohort of children

Data were collected from 9 to 18 year olds surveyed nationally in a three-wave longitudinal survey. The population-average (generalized estimating equation, GEE) odds of carrying a weapon to school in the last month were estimated as a function of past-year exposure to violent content in video, computer, and Internet games, as well as peer aggression and biological sex. The sample included youth who were at risk for both the exposure (i.e., game play) and the outcome (i.e., who attended public or private school). 3,397 observations from 1,489 youth were included in analyses. 1.4% of youth reported carrying a weapon to school in the last month and 69% reported that at least some of the games they played depicted violence. After adjusting for other potentially influential characteristics (e.g., aggressive behavior), playing at least some violent games in the past year was associated with a fourfold increase in odds of also reporting carrying a weapon to school in the last month. Although youth who reported frequent and intense peer victimization in the past year were more likely to report carrying a weapon to school in the last month, this relation was explained by other influential characteristics. Consistent with the predictions of social-cognitive, observational learning theory, this study supports the hypothesis that carrying weapons to school is associated with violent game play. As one of the first studies of its kind, findings should be interpreted cautiously and need to be replicated.

Automatic Mental Processes, Automatic Actions and Behaviours in Game Transfer Phenomena: An Empirical Self-Report Study Using Online Forum Data

Previous studies have demonstrated that the playing of videogames can have both intended and unintended effects. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of videogames on players’ mental processes and behaviours in day-to-day settings. A total of 1,022 self-reports from 762 gamers collected from online videogame forums were classified, quantified, described and explained. The data include automatic thoughts, sensations and impulses, automatic mental replays of the game in real life, and voluntary/involuntary behaviours with videogame content. Many gamers reported that they had responded–at least sometimes–to real life stimuli as if they were still playing videogames. This included overreactions, avoidances, and involuntary movements of limbs. These experiences lasted relatively short periods of time and some gamers experienced them recurrently. The gamers’ experiences appeared to be enhanced by virtual embodiment, repetitive manipulation of game controls, and their gaming habits. However, similar phenomena may also occur when doing other non-gaming activities. The implications of these game transfer experiences are discussed.

Altered Visual Perception in Game Transfer Phenomena: An Empirical Self-Report Study

The aim of this study was to identify, classify, and explain gamers’ perceptual experiences referred to as Visual Game Transfer Phenomena (VGTP) to contribute to the understanding of the effects of post-video-game playing and encourage healthy and safe gaming. A total of 656 experiences from 483 gamers were collected from 54 online gaming forums. The findings suggest that intensive playing can result in misperceptions and visual distortions of real-life objects and environments, stereotypical visual experiences that arise from mind visualization, and pseudo-hallucinatory experiences with video game content. Gamers’ experiences can be explained by the interplay of physiological, perceptual, and cognitive mechanisms. Observation of video game features suggests that in most cases a relationship between the games’ structural characteristics, gamers’ VGTP experiences, and gamers’ playing habits appeared relevant. VGTP can occur while gaming, immediately after stopping play, or after some delay. Further VGTP characteristics and their psychosocial implications are discussed.