Victorian England Research Articles

Unruly Female Characters in Augusta Webster’s Selected Poetry

With her unfaltering dedication to fight against patriarchal convictions in Victorian Britain, Augusta Webster (1837-1894) is featured as a groundbreaking activist poet who grapples steadfastly with the problems of gender discrimination and dualistic constructions of womanhood. At the center of Webster’s feminist agenda are Victorian women’s educational and suffrage rights, equal employment opportunities and economic freedom. Webster’s reformist character is profoundly manifested in her choice of nonconformist, radical female characters as the spokesperson of her ideas, who are condemned and marginalized by the Victorian society. The main concentration of this study, hence, is to analyze these maverick female characters in “Medea in Athens”, “A Castaway”, and “Sister Annuciata” to unravel Webster’s political, activist impetus to destabilize dichotomous conceptualizations of womanhood, either as the angel in the house or the fallen woman in Victorian society.

EMMA TENNANT’S tEss: HARDY’S CANONICAL NOVEL FROM A FEMALE REVISIONIST PERSPECTIVE

Depending on the perspective, Emma Tennant’s tess (1993) can be interpreted as a neo-Victorian, postmodernist, and revisionist novel. This paper is aimed at analyzing tess from the aspect of revisionism. By offering a familiar story from a female perspective and combining it with an imaginative biography of Hardy’s life and a polemic account of the history of women’s oppression, the narrator intends to challenge the well-known past and rewrite it. The Victorian era is represented as “the last great age of punishment for women”, but such representation is extended to Thomas Hardy. By presenting unknown facts that portray the writer in a negative context, the narrator intends to “shake” our understanding of the allegedly well-known past and break into history. The novel implies that the Victorian age was even bleaker than it is usually thought of, but this vision is extended to the present, which is arguably represented in an even grimmer light. By pointing to the patterns visible both in the past and the present, the narrator’s purpose is to highlight the timeless, universal topics that permeate all the literary and historical periods, such as the oppression of women. As suggested by the novel, the only way to end the tradition of women’s subordination and punishment is to allow women to tell their own stories.

Contours of Status and Power: Seats and Sitting Postures in Charles Dickens’s Our Mutual Friend

Abstract The Victorians were notorious for their preoccupation with the posture and carriage of men and women, by which they outlined the contours of their refinement and moral characters. Drawing on Victorian etiquette manuals and modern social psychological studies regarding sitting postures, this article addresses scenes and melodramas featuring seats in Charles Dickens’s Our Mutual Friend so as to reveal how Dickens has created a scathing satire on the respectable pretension and deep moral vices of Victorian society through his seemingly exaggerated description of characters’ sitting manners. It argues that seat performance is not only a crucial means for Victorians’ self-representation but also a shrewd strategy for domination. While Dickens’s caricatured depictions of Lammle’s and Fledgeby’s abominable sitting manners manifests his biting attacks on Victorian predatory fortune-hunters’ thirst for power and money, his rendition of Jenny’s and Bella’s questionable sitting poses lays bare the miseries and imprisonment of women in that era.

Alison C. Pedley, Mothers, Criminal Insanity and the Asylum in Victorian England. Cure, Redemption and Rehabilitation

Alison C. Pedley, <i>Mothers, Criminal Insanity and the Asylum in Victorian England. Cure, Redemption and Rehabilitation</i>

Violence into virtue: ‘liberal empire’ and Victorian statuary in St Paul’s Cathedral

The article investigates the collusion between colonialism and liberalism in Victorian Britain through the imperial statuary in St Paul’s Cathedral. In particular, it examines the commemorative statues of colonial heroes from British India, with particular reference to the statues of James Napier, Henry Montgomery Lawrence and Samuel Browne: it places these figures in their historical context, explores their often conflicted relation to the East India Company and imperial rule in South Asia, and teases out the multiple intensities of meaning – personal, professional, ambivalent, messy – pulsing under these statues. A close examination of the statuary reveals the impulses and anxieties around the imperial male body that went into their making and how the marble both concealed and congealed these stories to produce sanitized versions of violence and empire.

‘Greek Gypsies’, Greek dress and a blockade in the 1886 British press

Ninety-nine Roma from the periphery of Europe arrived in Britain in July 1886. They were called the ‘Greek Gypsies’ in the contemporary press and hailed from all parts of Greece and European Turkey, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and the Asia Minor coast, at a time when Europe was under a ‘Balkan crisis’. The ‘Greek’ epithet affixed to the foreign travellers in the 1886 British press was effectively an umbrella term for the ‘Graeco-Turkish corner of Europe’. It also associated a transnational group with Greece, a single, defiant nation over which the Powers had already asserted their dominance with a naval blockade in the spring of 1886. This article explores the political climate of 1886 in regards to Greece, the narrative of the ‘Greek Gypsies’ in the British press and the depiction of modern Greeks in the same year to show that, like the ‘Gypsies’, the Greeks physically and culturally represented at the time an Other both familiar, exotic and a supposed threat to Europe’s stability that Victorian Britain could not accommodate.

Experts and Amateurs in Times of Transition: From Decolonising to the Re-Colonisation of Science

This article interprets recent changes in the structure of the scientific field, focusing on the legitimacy of expertise and the division between lay and expert knowledge. It compares aspects of the scientific transition, the professionalisation of the scientific field in Victorian England to developments of the past few decades. Nineteenth-century transformations resulted in the restructuring and decolonisation of the scientific field: clearer internal and external boundaries and relative autonomy. Today, we witness the blurring of these demarcations and the deconstruction of earlier constructs. The conceptual framework of my analysis is that introduced by Harry Collins and his colleagues as the Studies of Expertise and Experience. The article first provides an overview of the most important concepts, altering some emphases to fit the purposes of the present subject. By examining the question of legitimacy and status of expert knowledge under different periods and circumstances, the article points out both similarities and important differences between the two eras of transition. Finally, the paper discusses the recolonisation of the scientific field observed in twenty-first-century autocracies and concludes that the conceptual framework of the third wave of science studies needs to be adjusted to give an entirely satisfying interpretation of this novel development.

The Year that Shaped the Victorian Age: Lives, Loves and Letters of 1845 by Michael Wheeler (review)

The Year that Shaped the Victorian Age: Lives, Loves and Letters of 1845 by Michael Wheeler (review)

Determining How Society's Opinion of Women in England Influenced Their Writing

This investigation inspects the multiple correlations between social prejudices against women and the literature produced by them. Spanning more than a hundred years, the research covers the late eighteenth century, the Regency Era, the Victorian Era, and the Edwardian Era. Some sources did not provide the relationship between treatment and literature produced but instead set up a historical background for England during the above periods. However, all the sources proved in one way or another that there was mistreatment of women present. With the sources covering the correlation between the treatment of women and the literature they wrote, these found a direct relationship and reflected in novels and poems via way of working women and spinsters.

‘It biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder’: female rivalry in Caroline Lee Hentz’s novellas

ABSTRACT Nineteenth-century literature often depicts women as rivals, a phenomenon Virginia Woolf attributes in ‘A Room of One's Own' to the male-dominated nature of literature up until the twentieth century. This led to women being defined in relation to men. Feminist critics often reject female competitiveness as it challenges the collective effort to contest patriarchal control, focusing instead on female friendship. However, there is a lack of critical exploration into rivalry among female characters in nineteenth-century literature by nineteenth-century female novelists, particularly regarding overt spite or ill will. This article addresses this gap by examining poisonous relationships among female friends and siblings in novellas by Caroline Lee Hentz. Drawing from Freud's theories on female sexuality, critiques by feminist scholars like Janice Raymond, and Sianne Ngai’s studies on negative affects, the study uncovers the origins and often-tragic outcomes of toxic relationships among women. It contextualizes these themes using biblical imagery from Psalm 140:1-3, which depicts metaphorical venom resonating with jealousy and treachery in nineteenth-century literature. Additionally, this analysis highlights societal barriers in the judgmental Victorian society that hindered the establishment of genuine relationships among women.

The Effects of Social Restraints and Gender Roles on the Female Characters in Sons and Lovers

Abstract: This study looks at how societal norms and gender roles are portrayed in D.H. Lawrence's novel Sons and Lovers and how they affect the female characters. In the sociocultural backdrop of late Victorian England, this study examines the complexity of female identity, agency, and autonomy through a thorough analysis of the three main female characters: Gertrude Morel, Miriam Leivers, and Clara Dawes. Using theoretical frameworks from social constructivism, gender studies, and feminist theory, the study explores how societal norms and gender roles influence the relationships, ideas, and behaviors of the female characters. By analyzing the narrative strategies, symbolism, locations, objects, and language that Lawrence uses, the research clarifies the novel's complex representation of social norms and gender expectations. The article also addresses Sons and Lovers applicability to current debates concerning gender issues and social standards, emphasizing the novel's lasting value as a piece of literature that elicits contemplation on the survival of patriarchal systems and the necessity of social transformation. The article concludes by outlining potential directions for future investigation and study in this field, such as interdisciplinary studies that look at the intersections between gender expectations and other identity markers and comparative assessments of gender portrayal in other literary works.

Analysis of the Main Character Costumes in ‘Enola Holmes’ Movie using CS Peirce’s Theory

This study aims to analyse the costumes that the main character wears in the movie ‘Enola Holmes’ by using Charles Sanders (CS) Peirce’s theory. The data in this study was collected by watching the movies several times and taking notes on the costumes worn by Enola Holmes, the main character in this movie. The data analysis was done by identifying the signs in the costumes and interpreting their meanings based on CS Peirce’s semiotic theory, which divides signs into icons, indexes, and symbols. The result of this study shows that Enola Holmes’ costumes function as icons, indexes, and symbols. As icons, the costumes directly represent the Victorian era and Enola’s various disguises. As indexes, the costumes reflect Enola’s actions, emotions, and experiences. Furthermore, as symbols, the costumes convey meanings related to gender roles, courage, independence, and family heritage. This study helps in gaining an understanding of how film costumes can be used to communicate storylines and to develop characters.

Immersion – new media and old ambitions

As immersive exhibitions and entertainments have become fashionable, it should be remembered that they have a long history, stretching back to the panoramas of the 18th century and the many optical novelties of the Victorian era, leading up to cinema and subsequent attempts to make this a more immersive experience. More recently, the concepts of cyberspace and the metaverse have been imported from science fiction to describe virtual experiences now available through digital media. Remediation theory should explain these, as well as their evident popularity, yet cultural and aesthetic hostility to such spatial illusions is almost as old as the new media themselves, and has reappeared in response to immersive exhibitions.

Unlocking the Voices of Children: The Evolution of Child Narrators in Anglophone Literature

ABSTRACT This research investigates the evolution of child narrators in adult Anglophone fiction, tracing their development from being marginalized figures in the pre-romantic era to significant voices in the subsequent Romantic, Victorian, and modern periods. It explores how evolving perceptions of childhood contributed to the inclusion and growth of child narrators over time, arguing that children’s capacity for providing unique insights and valuable perspectives was increasingly acknowledged and exploited by authors to delve deeper into the complexities of human nature. By examining key works and authors, including Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, J.D. Salinger, Emma Donoghue and Mark Haddon among others, and drawing upon interdisciplinary resources from fields such as literary criticism, childhood studies, and socio-cultural history, the paper establishes a thorough examination of the changing role and portrayal of child narrators, their cultural significance, and the ways in which they help drive social, emotional, and psychological exploration in literature.

Threads of Tradition Social Expectations and Marriage in Emma by Jane Austen and Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy

This study explores the theme of marriage and social expectations in two beloved novels: In case of two British novelists Jane Austen's Emma and Thomas Hardy's Tess of the D’Urbervilles. The paper is focused on revealing a multi-faceted character of the figure of gender roles, social values and traditions linking the lives of Emma Woodhouse and Tess Durbeyfield by means of a comparative analysis. These tensions between female characters' individual goals and social constraints are exposed by the study and the opinions of Elizabeth V. Spelman, Ann Bo-Hubert, Hazel Carby, Elaine Showalter, Susan Gubar and Sandra M. Gilbert are referred to. Austen dismantled the precedent social norms of the Regency period through the vital tool of satire and wit after this novel is through and through analysed out. The made decision to make the word association “Brain” instead of “love” is a pretty good way to show the society who sees marriage as only a calculated action, not the passionate connection. The multilayered substructures of a theme are formed due to the "crazy woman in the attic" metaphor constructed by Gilbert and Gubar which implies the true self of a woman in society is suppressed due to restricted roles. Unlike Stone's 'Greek Myths,' Hardy in Tess of the D’Urbervilles focusing on a gloomy story that work to demonstrate the harmful consequences of ignoring Victorian society rules. The article analyses the marriage and gender role issues that Hardy has shown in a vivid manner as Eagleton says. The main conflict of the play is about what man want and what society demands, that is: what is true happiness and what is right in social term. Social class differences get intensively scrutinized, as the plot shows how the social systems influence the lives of the characters and build their destinies which deepens the theme analysis further. The study shows that these classic novels have been excellent guides and examples that have helped readers figure out what they would like to do with their lives. Moreover, the readers have been able to see people confront the challenges they encounter from institutions or interpersonal dynamics as well as expectations to balance their culture and social obligations.

Social Issues During the Victorian Era Lead to the Formation of Nice Girl Syndrome in Gaskell’s Ruth

This study aimed to elaborate on the relationship between social issues during the Victorian era and Nice Girl syndrome, as demonstrated in Elizabeth Gaskell's Ruth. A qualitative descriptive method was employed to achieve this objective, incorporating Alfred Adler's Individual Personality approach and Beverly Engel's Nice Girl syndrome as the grand theory. Data on female characters' behaviour and thoughts in Elizabeth Gaskell's Ruth were collected and analyzed using Adler's and Nice Girl syndrome theories, respectively. Furthermore, the dialogue and monologue of female characters were also considered. The results showed that social issues such as social class, Victorian family, Victorian ideal womanhood, and Victorian religion and morality related to Nice Girl syndrome during the Victorian era influenced and contributed to the formation of Ruth's female characters.

Cows, Communities, and Religious Responses to the 1865–66 British Rinderpest Outbreak*

The devastating outbreak of rinderpest in the British Isles in 1865–66 — the so‐called “cattle plague” — was a significant event in Victorian Britain, one that did much to shape British agriculture, animal disease control, and veterinary medicine. This article argues that the cattle plague also had long‐term significance for the relationship between the Church of England and non‐human animals. During eighteenth‐century rinderpest outbreaks, Anglican clergy had rarely considered the suffering animals. In 1865–66 and afterwards, services in Anglican churches increasingly involved animal themes, issues, and presences. From this time, it became usual for Anglicans to mark moments of severe animal disease with special prayers and services. The crisis also encouraged changes in how Church of England clergy, and ministers in other Christian denominations, spoke about animals in sermons. During the outbreak of rinderpest, there was a sharpened awareness of the extent to which cows and humans had common interests and inhabited a shared community. A heightened appreciation of the bonds and interdependencies between people and farmed animals, the article suggests, had much significance for ecological thinking among nineteenth‐century ministers of religion. The article argues for the distinctive status of cattle in modern Christianity.

Was Shaw a Victorian? We Need to Ask Another Question

ABSTRACT Shaw scholars have long hesitated to label Shaw a Victorian writer. Although almost half of his life overlapped Queen Victoria’s reign, Shaw’s challenges to nineteenth-century morals and mores tend to mark him as an outlier. This article advocates a fresh approach: perhaps we have been taking the “Victorian” question too literally. Postmodern critics have long urged us to look for diverse and contradictory elements in literary works that seem to be staid and classical. In this article, the author looks for commonalities between Shaw’s Getting Married and three nineteenth-century novels (Eight Cousins, Great Expectations, and Jane Eyre). Do theatrical strategies and fictional writing techniques ever change places? Do the characters in Victorian novels ever explore Shavian ideas? And can we use those commonalities to rethink some of our assumptions about the Victorian era?

Living Outside with the Sun

This paper reflects upon the history of design of outdoor living spaces, a typology that blends interior directly with landscape. In Australasia, outdoor living is a symbol of contemporary life style but it must adapt to the danger of over-exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet rays. Tempering openness to the summer sky is not just a choice but rather a survival strategy. The relationship of European descendents to the Antipodean sun has fluctuated over time. In Victorian times, hats, copious clothing and villa verandahs protected prized pale complexions. Tanned skin branded the labouring classes and the native population. In the 1920s, the ancient Greek practice of heliotherapy was hailed as beneficial for the treatment of tuberculosis. Concurrently architecture clipped verandahs and proposed open sun terraces, sometimes scantily clad by a pergola. The negative consequences of this sun-worship were not known until the 1980s when the relation between ultraviolet rays and skin cancer was made and the recognition that one in three Australasians will be affected. Living outside with the sun therefore requires modification. Sunscreen is prescribed for application every two hours; hats, clothing and sun-glasses protect the body but hinder communication between people and their surroundings. Traditional solid shade shields direct rays, but deny the warmth of the sun, which is often so welcome in temperate New Zealand. Open shade sails fail to acknowledge the fact that ultraviolet rays scatter. Living well outside is not simple.

Loosening the Stays: Victorian Shaw

ABSTRACT This article for the special edition “Victorian Shaw” focuses on the intersections across social issues in the mid- to late-Victorian era that influenced the writing and reception of plays by George Bernard Shaw and contemporaries Wilde and Pinero. Shaw was an advocate for workers’ rights, as well as women’s rights, and spoke out in writing and orally to abolish the Contagious Diseases Acts that went after women but not the men who transmitted the diseases. Shaw’s connections to women activists are also featured; key speeches/essays by women are included. Shaw’s role as a theater critic gave him the opportunity to show the impact of the social ills of the era. By the 1890s, he began to write plays; by the end of the Victorian era, he was an established playwright who gave women roles that went beyond the boundaries of nineteenth-century theater.