Victim-perpetrator Relationship Research Articles

The normalization of sibling violence: does gender and personal experience of violence influence perceptions of physical assault against siblings?

Despite its pervasive and detrimental nature, sibling violence (SV) remains marginalized as a harmless and inconsequential form of familial aggression. The present study investigates the extent to which perceptions of SV differ from those of other types of interpersonal violence. A total of 605 respondents (197 males, 408 females) read one of four hypothetical physical assault scenarios that varied according to perpetrator-victim relationship type (i.e., sibling vs. dating partner vs. peer vs. stranger) before completing a series of 24 attribution items. Respondents also reported on their own experiences of interpersonal violence during childhood. Exploratory factor analysis reduced 23 attribution items to three internally reliable factors reflecting perceived assault severity, victim culpability, and victim resistance ratings. A 4 × 2 MANCOVA-controlling for respondent age-revealed several significant effects. Overall, males deemed the assault less severe and the victim more culpable than did females. In addition, the sibling assault was deemed less severe compared to assault on either a dating partner or a stranger, with the victim of SV rated just as culpable as the victim of dating, peer, or stranger-perpetrated violence. Finally, respondents with more (frequent) experiences of childhood SV victimization perceived the hypothetical SV assault as being less severe, and victim more culpable, than respondents with no SV victimization. Results are discussed in the context of SV normalization. Methodological limitations and applications for current findings are also outlined.

The impact of asian values and victim−perpetrator closeness on the disclosure of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse.

Prior research indicates that survivors of abuse characterized by very close victimperpetrator relationships (VC traumas) are significantly more likely to delay disclosure for 1 or more years, or never to disclose, than survivors of abuse characterized by not very close victimperpetrator relationships (NVC traumas) (M. M. Foynes, J. J. Freyd, & A. P. Deprince, 2009, Child abuse, betrayal and disclosure, Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 209–217). Nondisclosure of abuse may serve a protective function in that it allows for the maintenance of a necessary, albeit abusive, relationship. This dynamic may be particularly relevant for people who adhere strongly to Asian cultural values of interdependence and may be differentially applicable to disclosure of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. An online study was conducted with Asian Americans (AAs) and European Americans (EAs; N 266) to test the hypothesis that Asian values, rather than ethnic group membership, would be associated with decreased disclosure of VC abuse, but not affect disclosure of NVC abuse. The impact of Asian values was expected to be the strongest for disclosure of VC sexual abuse. A series of backward stepwise logistic regressions revealed that Asian values, but not ethnicity, were significantly associated with nondisclosure of VC sexual and emotional abuse, but not VC physical abuse. Neither ethnicity nor Asian values was associated with disclosure of any type of NVC abuse. Female gender increased the odds of VC abuse disclosure only. By examining the impact of cultural values on disclosure of particular abuse types and uncovering the limitations of attending to ethnicity alone, we hope to inform efforts toward facilitating recovery from trauma and creating more supportive environments for survivors.

Elder Abuse and Neglect Risk Alleviation in Protective Services

Little is known about conditions associated with favorable elder mistreatment (EM) case outcomes. The fundamental goal of EM protective service programs is to alleviate risk associated with substantiated cases of elder abuse and neglect. Using the EM socio-cultural model, this study examined victim, perpetrator, victim-perpetrator relationship, social embeddedness, and socio-cultural factors predicting risk alleviation of EM cases. Data from a random sample of EM protective social service cases (n = 250) at a large community agency in New York City were collected and coded by multiple, independent raters. Multinomial and binary logistic regression were used to examine undifferentiated risk alleviation for the entire sample of EM cases as well as differentiated financial, emotional, and physical abuse sub-types. Undifferentiated EM risk alleviation was associated with male victim gender, older victim age, previous community help-seeking, and victim-perpetrator dyads characterized by a separate living arrangement and shorter term abuse longevity. Financial abuse cases with younger perpetrators were less likely to have risk reduction. Physical abuse risk reduction was less likely when the perpetrator was male and the victim-perpetrator dyad included different genders. Distinct findings across EM sub-types suggest a need to develop targeted practice strategies with clients experiencing different forms of EM. Findings highlight a need to develop EM protective service infrastructure around perpetrator rehabilitation.

Victim Blame, Sexism and Just-World Beliefs: A Cross-Cultural Comparison

Victims of rape sometimes suffer from being blamed for their assault. This cross-cultural field experiment investigated victim blame with respect to victim–perpetrator relationship, benevolent sexism (BS), hostile sexism (HS) and belief in a just world (BJW). Participants were recruited in the United Kingdom (N = 75) and Sweden (N = 83). Participants read a vignette depicting either a date rape or a stranger rape and rated the level of victim blame. The victim of a date rape was blamed more than a victim of stranger rape and benevolent sexism was the only significant predictor of this blame. There were differences between British and Swedish informants in BS, HS and BJW, but not level of victim blame.

The attribution of responsibility in cases of stalking

There is a general belief that stranger stalkers present the greatest threat to the personal safety of victims, despite national victimisation surveys and applied research demonstrating that ex-partner stalkers are generally more persistent and violent. The just-world hypothesis offers a possible explanation for this apparent contradiction. The current research used nine hypothetical scenarios, administered to 328 university students, to investigate the assumptions that underlie attributions of responsibility in cases of stalking. It explores whether these assumptions are consistent with the proposed mechanisms of the just-world hypothesis, and whether they vary according to the nature of the perpetrator–victim relationship and conduct severity. Thematic analysis revealed that the victim was perceived to be more responsible for the situation when the perpetrator was portrayed as an ex-partner rather than a stranger or acquaintance. Furthermore, victims were perceived to be more responsible when the perpetrator's behaviour was persistent and threatening. These findings are discussed in the context of the just-world hypothesis and related to the proposed mechanisms by which a person can reinterpret a situation so that the perceived injustice disappears.

Perceptions of male victim blame in a child sexual abuse case: effects of gender, age and need for closure

According to the gender stereotypes attributed to men, and research on adult male victims, boys subjected to sexual abuse are expected to be better able to defend themselves than girls, and are thought to be more likely to adopt a proactive attitude in the victim–perpetrator relationship. They are consequently regarded as more blameworthy than female victims. In the present study, 384 French respondents read through a sexual abuse scenario in which the child victim's gender, perpetrator's gender and victim's age (7 vs. 12 years old) were manipulated. As expected, male respondents blamed the victim more than female respondents did, especially when the victim was a boy. Furthermore, male respondents blamed the perpetrator less than female respondents did, especially when the perpetrator was a woman and the victim a boy. However, these effects were observed for victims of both 7 and 12 years old while it was expected only for the 12-year-old victims. Finally, as expected, respondents who expressed a high need for closure perceived the victim as less credible and more guilty than respondents who expressed a low need for closure, particularly when the victim was 12 years old. This cognitive characteristic thus appears to moderate the expression of stereotypical representations.

Depressive symptoms after a sexual assault among women: understanding victim-perpetrator relationships and the role of social perceptions

Although mental health impact of gender based violence has been documented for many decades, the impact of the socio-cultural dimensions and type of perpetrator on mental health outcomes has not been described outside of developed countries. We explore depression symptomatology four to six weeks post-rape in South Africa and examine whether this differs according to the circumstances of the rape. 140 participants recruited from public hospital services in the Eastern and Western Cape provinces were interviewed within two weeks after completing the post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) medication. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-demographic and sexual assault characteristics including perpetrator. Depressive symptomatology was measured using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. 84.3% (95% CI: 78.1-90.3) women were found to have high levels of depressive symptoms, but lower levels were found among women raped in circumstances in which there was a lesser likelihood of blame such as those raped by strangers rather than intimate partners (Odds Ratio: (OR) 0.28 (95% Confidence Intervals (CI): 0.11-0.69) and higher levels were associated with experiencing four or more side effects related to PEP medication (OR: 3.79: CI: 1.03-13.94). Receiving support and severe sexual assaults (involving weapons and multiple perpetrators) were not associated with depression. The study does not support the general assumption that more violent rape causes more psychological harm. These results have important implications for individual treatment because it is more generally assumed that multiple perpetrator rapes, stranger rapes and those with weapons would result in more psychological trauma and thus more enduring symptoms. Our findings point to the importance of understanding the socio-cultural dimensions, including dynamics of blame and stigma, of rape on mental health sequelae.

“It's Common Sense That It's Wrong”: Young People's Perceptions and Experiences of Cyberbullying

The use of the Internet, mobile phones, and social networking sites by some young people to harass and intimidate each other has led cyberbullying to become a significant concern for parents, educators, and policy makers. The existing literature on this behavior is largely quantitative, with only a small number of qualitative studies addressing this issue. This study examined perceptions and experiences of cyberbullying in a series of 18 focus groups conducted with young people aged 9-19 in the UK. The results suggest that cyberbullying is perceived to be problematic and serious but relatively routine part of young people's online lives and interactions. The results also highlighted the influence of the characteristics of technologically mediated communication on the dynamics of the behavior. The role of anonymity in determining victim-perpetrator relationships and the seriousness of the behavior was discussed by participants, though the influence of disinhibition and inability to view the direct impact of victimization were perceived to be of greater importance. The implications of the results are discussed, and areas for future research suggested.

Men and women as perpetrators and victims of sexual aggression in heterosexual and same‐sex encounters: A study of first‐year college students in Germany

This study examined the prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a large convenience sample of N = 2,149 first-year college students from different universities in Germany. Participants were asked about both victimization by, and perpetration of, sexual aggression since the age of 14. Both same-sex and heterosexual victim-perpetrator constellations were examined. Prevalence rates were established for different victim-perpetrator relationships (partners, acquaintances, strangers) and for incidents involving alcohol consumption by one or both partners. The overall perpetration rate was 13.2%, for men and 7.6% for women. The overall victimization rate was 35.9% for women and 19.4% for men. A disparity between victimization and perpetration reports was found for both men and women. Perpetration and victimization rates were highest among participants who had sexual contacts with both opposite-sex and same-sex partners. Sexual aggression and victimization rates were higher between current or former partners and acquaintances than between strangers. Alcohol consumption by one or both partners was involved in almost 75% of all victimization and almost 70% of all perpetration incidents. The findings portray a comprehensive picture of the scale of sexual aggression and victimization in college students with different sexual lifestyles.

Critical concepts in elder abuse research

This paper identifies core elements in principal definitions of elder abuse or mistreatment of older adults (EA/MOA) and discusses the relevance of four crucial concepts: age, vulnerability, trust, and power balance in relationships. A critical analysis of selected literature in EA/MOA with a focus on works from the last 10 years. Current definitions of EA/MOA share commonalities regarding an understanding of elder abuse as a status offence, the inclusion of both acts and omissions, and the consideration of multiple levels of behavior and its effects. Definitions differ with regard to aspects as crucial as the intentionality of an abusive action and its actual or potential harmful effects. EA/MOA can be considered as a complex subtype of victimization in later life limited to victim-perpetrator relationships, where the perpetrator has assumed responsibility for the victim, the victim puts trust in the offender, or the role assigned to the offending person creates the perception and expectation that the victim may trust the perpetrator. Vulnerability is identified as a key variable in EA/MOA theory and research. With regard to neglect, the mere possibility of being neglected presupposes a heightened level of vulnerability. Power imbalance often characterizes victim - perpetrator relationships but is not a necessary characteristic of abuse. Research on EA/MOA needs conceptual development. Confining phenomena of EA/MOA to specific relationships and tying them to notions of vulnerability has implications for research design and sampling and points to the limits of population-based victimization surveys.

Intimate Partner Femicide in South Africa in 1999 and 2009

Death is the most extreme consequence of intimate partner violence. Female homicide studies with data on the perpetrator-victim relationship can provide insights. We compare the results of two South African national studies of female homicide with similar sampling done 10 y apart. We conducted a retrospective national survey using a weighted cluster design of a proportionate random sample of 38 mortuaries to identify homicides committed in 2009. We abstracted victim data from mortuary and autopsy reports, and perpetrator data from police interviews. We compared homicides of women 14 y and older in 2009 with previously published data collected with the same methodology for homicides committed in 1999. The study found that the rate of female homicide per 100,000 female population in 2009 was 12.9 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 9.3, 16.5), compared to 24.7 (95% CI: 17.7, 31.6) in 1999. The incidence rate ratio of 0.54 (95% CI: 0.20, 0.84) reflects a significantly lower rate in 2009. The rate of intimate partner femicide was 5.6/100,000 in 2009 versus 8.8/100,000 in 1999, with an incidence rate ratio of 0.63 (95% CI: 0.24, 1.02), indicating no difference between rates. Logistic regression analysis of homicide characteristics showed that the odds ratio of suspected rape among non-intimate femicides in 2009 compared to 1999 was 2.61 (95% CI: 1.23, 4.08) and among intimate partner femicides it was 0.84 (95% CI: 0.50, 1.42). The OR of homicide by gunshot was 0.54 (95% CI: 0.30, 0.99) in 2009 versus 1999. There was a significant drop in convictions of perpetrators of non-intimate femicide in 2009 versus 1999 (OR = 0.32 [95% CI: 0.19, 0.53]). Limitations of the study include the relatively small sample size and having only two time points. Female homicide in South Africa was lower in 2009 than 1999, but intimate partner femicide and suspected rape homicide rates were not statistically different. The cause of the difference is unknown. The findings suggest that South Africa needs greater efforts nationally to implement evidence-based violence prevention. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

An Exploration of Crossover Sexual Offending

Studies have produced equivocal findings regarding whether sex offenders are stable in their choice of victims. Indeed, it remains unclear whether a sex offender's subsequent victims are typically of the same gender, age range, and victim-perpetrator relationship as that of the initial victim. Although some differences may be attributed to methodological disparities, others are not. This study sought to clarify this question by examining the tendency of sex offenders to switch from one type of victim to another, both within an index offense and across offenses and all victims. Archival records of 789 incarcerated sex offenders were examined. Of those offenders who had multiple victims at the index offense (n = 279), 13% had victims of both genders, 14% had victims in different age categories (child, adolescent, and adult), and 13% had varying relationships with the victims (i.e., family member, acquaintance, or stranger). When the records of those with past sexual convictions were examined (n = 208), 20% of offenders had a prior victim of a different gender; 40% crossed over across age categories, and 48% of the repeat offenders had varying relationships with the victim across convictions. Offenders who had both male and female victims and offenders who had victims of varied relationship status across crimes had higher Static-99 risk scores than offenders who were more stable with regard to victim selection. These findings are compared to those of previous studies, focusing on how these results add clarity to a previous literature whose conclusions were challenged by the use of disparate sampling and research methodologies.

Examining the Roles of Victim–Perpetrator Relationship and Emotional Closeness in Judgments Toward a Depicted Child Sexual Abuse Case

The current study investigated the impact that respondent gender, victim-perpetrator relationship, and the level of emotional closeness had on attributions in a hypothetical child sexual abuse case. A total of 160 university students read a hypothetical scenario depicting a female child sexually abused by an adult male. The perpetrator was either the victim's biological father or her stepfather, with this relationship described as being either emotionally close or emotionally distant. Respondents read one of four (2 victim-perpetrator relationship × 2 emotional closeness) scenarios before completing 26 attribution items pertaining to credibility, blame, and severity. Principle components analysis yielded five factors, namely victim credibility, mother culpability, perpetrator culpability, assault severity, and victim culpability. Multivariate analysis of covariance--controlling for respondent (Caucasian vs. non-Caucasian) ethnicity--revealed, as predicted, significant main effects for respondent gender, victim-perpetrator relationship, and emotional closeness. In general, females assigned more provictim/ antiperpetrator/antimother attributions than males. Results were also suggested that both victim-perpetrator relationship and emotional closeness influence attributions made toward the victim, perpetrator, and nonoffending mother. Methodological issues and suggestions for future work are also discussed.

Predictors of Victim–Perpetrator Relationship Stability Following a Sexual Assault: A Brief Report

The researchers assessed the predictors of victim-perpetrator relationship stability following a sexual assault. Participants included 254 women sexually assaulted by a friend, casual dating partner, or steady dating partner. Results suggested that most victim-perpetrator relationships (75%) continued following the sexual assault. Greater trauma symptomatology, less perpetrator blame, and nondisclosure of the assault by victims predicted relationship continuation with the perpetrator. Additionally, the odds of continuing the relationship were greater following acts of sexual coercion than following acts of completed rape. Close relationships (steady dating partner) were more likely to continue following the sexual assault than less close relationships (friends and casual dating partners). Unexpectedly, the odds of relationship stability were greater for women without histories of childhood sexual abuse than women with histories of childhood sexual abuse. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.

The relationship between workplace aggression and target deviant behaviour: The moderating roles of power and task interdependence

We investigate how employees’ deviant responses to experiencing workplace aggression are shaped by the social context in which the aggressive acts occur. Drawing on the group value model and theories of belongingness, we investigated three moderators of the relationship between workplace aggression and employee deviant behaviour: (1) perpetrator formal power (relating to their position within the organization), (2) perpetrator referent power (derived from their social position at work), and (3) task interdependence between the perpetrator and victim. Participants (N=299) consisted of North American employees in a variety of industries. Power and task interdependence interacted with workplace aggression to predict the extent and the direction of deviant behaviour. Specifically, we found that when the perpetrator had high power (either formal power or referent power) and low task interdependence with the target, victims were most likely to engage in deviance directed towards the perpetrator in response to aggression. These results are consistent with the idea that perpetrator power motivates victims to retaliate, but they are most likely to do so if they are not highly dependent on the perpetrator to complete their work tasks. This study suggests that spirals of workplace aggression depend on the nature of the perpetrator-victim relationship.

Experiences of violence among adolescents: gender patterns in types, perpetrators and associated psychological distress

To explore the psychological distress associations of experiences of several types of violence and the victim-perpetrator relationship of physical violence, a gender analysis was applied. Data were derived from a cross-sectional questionnaire study among 17-year-old upper secondary school students (N=1,663). Variables in focus were: self-reported psychological distress, experiences of physical violence, sexual assault, bullying and sexual harassment. Logistic regressions were used to examine associations. Experiences of physical violence, sexual assault, bullying and sexual harassment were associated with psychological distress in boys and girls. The perpetrators of physical violence were predominately males. Whether the perpetrator was unknown or known to the victim seem to be linked to psychological distress. Victimisation by a boyfriend was strongly related to psychological distress among girls. Experiences of several types of violence should be highlighted as factors associated with mental health problems in adolescents. The victim-perpetrator relationships of violence are gendered and likely influence the psychological distress association. Gendered hierarchies and norms likely influence the extent to which adolescents experience violence and how they respond to it in terms of psychological distress.

The Influence of Prior Relationship, Gender, and Fear on the Consequences of Stalking Victimization

While the findings concerning whether victim gender is associated with greater stalking consequences are equivocal, the literature is consistent that a prior victim-stalker relationship increases the severity of stalking victimization. The current study hypothesised that 1) this relationship would predict the psychological, physical, social, and economic consequences to victims, and that 2) fear may serve as a mediator of the impact of victim gender and prior relationship on the consequences of stalking. An international survey of 1,214 valid self-defined stalking victims reveals victim gender contributed to the psychological and physical consequences of stalking beyond the contribution of victim-perpetrator relationship. A more important predictor of these consequences and of social and economic consequences was fear, with women reporting greater levels than men.

Secondary Victimization and Victim Assistance

Secondary victimization has been defined as negative social or societal reaction in consequence of the primary victimization and is experienced as further violation of legitimate rights or entitlements by the victim. Unfavorable outcomes may violate several important expectations of crime victims, such as retaliation, security, and recognition of their victim status. The victim’s appraisal of the criminal proceedings has to be taken into account as potential causes of secondary victimization as well. In this study, secondary victimization by criminal proceedings was described as the victims involved perceive it. Negative as well as positive subjective effects would be measured. The power of outcome variables and procedure variables in predicting subjective effects was tested in hierarchical regression analysis; control variables such as victim age, gender, education, offense type, and victim-perpetrator relationship were included in the analysis. Participants were members of the largest and most known victim assistance association in Germany. The results suggest that criminal proceedings are frequently a secondary victimization for the crime victims involved. Secondary victimization was measured by assessing effects of criminal proceedings, as perceived by the victims, on coping with victimization, self-esteem, faith in the future, trust in the legal system, and faith in a just world. Negative effects on trust in the legal system and faith in a just world were considerably stronger than effects on coping with victimization, self-esteem, and faith in the future. Powerful predictors of secondary victimization were outcome satisfaction and subjective procedural justice. In contrast, punishment severity, interactional justice, and psychological stress by criminal proceedings did not qualify as significant predictors in multiple regression analysis. Some participants stated in written comments given at the end of the questionnaire that the criminal proceedings against the perpetrator had harmed them even more than the criminal victimization itself. 3 tables, 35 references.

Child abuse: Betrayal and disclosure

Objective The current study tested several hypotheses about disclosure of childhood sexual, physical, and emotional abuse derived from Betrayal Trauma Theory [Freyd, J. J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press]. We predicted that the duration of time from abuse to its disclosure would vary as a function of victim–perpetrator closeness. Methods Data collected from 202 undergraduate participants using a survey methodology were submitted to logistic regression analyses. The relative variance explained by other variables was also examined. Results Compared to survivors of emotional abuse (EA) who were in not very close (NVC) victim–perpetrator relationships, EA survivors in very close (VC) victim–perpetrator relationships were significantly more likely to wait 1 or more years to disclose, or never to disclose, than to wait a period of time less than 1 year (OR = 2.65). Further, survivors of physical abuse (PA) in VC victim–perpetrator relationships were significantly more likely to wait 1 or more years to disclose their abuse, if it was disclosed at all, than PA survivors of NVC victim–perpetrator relationships (OR = 3.99). Results for sexual abuse were not significant. Conclusions For EA and PA, VC victim–perpetrator relationships predicted longer durations of time from abuse to its disclosure than NVC victim–perpetrator relationships. Practice implications Although delayed disclosure may support necessary (albeit abusive) attachments with caregivers, it may also prolong the abuse and prevent receipt of support. Increased awareness that VC victim–perpetrator relationships may predict longer durations of time from abuse to its disclosure, and that these delays may serve a functional purpose, can help guide supportive and empathic responses to traumatic disclosures.

Perceptions of Blame and Credibility Toward Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse: Differences Across Victim Age, Victim-Perpetrator Relationship, and Respondent Gender in a Depicted Case

This study investigated victim culpability, credibility, and assault severity in a hypothetical sexual abuse case. A 2 (respondent gender) × 3 (victim age) × 3 (perpetrator type) between-subjects design was employed. Members (391) of the U.K. general public read the depiction of a female child assaulted by an adult male perpetrator. Respondents then completed an attributions questionnaire. Findings showed that male respondents were less positive toward victims and considered the victim less credible than female respondents. Younger victims (aged five years) were considered more credible than older children (aged 15 years). Victims of strangers were considered more positively and more credible than victims of someone known to them (their father or a family friend). Suggestions for future work are proposed.