Intimate Partner Violence Victimization Research Articles

The Association Between Victimization and Perpetration of Physical Intimate Partner Violence and Unmet Healthcare Needs Among Married Women in South Korea.

This study assessed physical intimate partner violence (IPV) experiences and examined their association with unmet healthcare needs among married women in South Korea. We analyzed data from a nationally representative longitudinal survey of 6,533 women at baseline. Participants were asked yes/no questions about their experiences of physical IPV victimization and perpetration over the past year. The responses were classified into four categories of IPV experience: "none," "victimization only," "perpetration only," and "both victimization and perpetration." At baseline, 0.9% reported being victimized only, and 25.9% reported both victimization and perpetration. The prevalence of unmet healthcare needs over the past year at baseline was 0.8%. Compared to women without any IPV experience, women in the IPV "victimization only" category had greater unmet healthcare needs (OR: 5.49, 95% CI [2.30, 13.12]) after adjusting for sociodemographic variables. Experiencing IPV perpetration only and both IPV victimization and perpetration were not statistically significantly associated with unmet healthcare needs. These results imply that physical IPV victims face difficulties accessing healthcare services which could exacerbate health inequalities over time. Moreover, this study suggests that it is necessary to distinguish IPV victims from those who experience IPV victimization only and those who experience both IPV victimization and perpetration.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) among sexual minority men (SMM) during the COVID-19 pandemic: A scoping review and a call for research

There is a dearth of literature documenting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization among sexual minority men (SMM). This review examines studies conducted since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the experiences and changes in IPV experiences among SMM. We conducted a comprehensive search, and article screening and selection adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Only 7 studies were identified and met the eligibility, all of which utilized cross-sectional design. Studies were conducted in the U.S (n = 4), Spain (n = 1), China (n = 1), and a study using global samples (n = 1). Measurements and assessment tools for IPV victimization vary across these studies. SMM were observed to experience a relatively high rate of IPV victimization, and some reported experiencing more severe and frequent IPV victimization since the pandemic. IPV victimization was associated with multilevel factors such as younger age, substance use, mental illness, economic and structural vulnerabilities. None of the studies had examined the impact of the pandemic on help-seeking. There is a need to explore the long-term effects of the ongoing pandemic on IPV victimization among this vulnerable population. Developing safe intervention strategies and ensuring confidential access to health and supportive services are particularly urged.

Causal and common risk pathways linking childhood maltreatment to later intimate partner violence victimization.

Childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization are major psychiatric risk factors. Maltreatment substantially increases the likelihood of subsequent IPV victimization, but what drives this association is poorly understood. We analyzed retrospective self-reports of maltreatment and IPV victimization in 12,794 participants (58% women, 42% men) from the Twins Early Development Study at ages 21 and 26 using quantitative genetic methods. We estimated the etiological influences common to maltreatment and IPV, and the effect of maltreatment on IPV beyond such common influences. Participants who reported childhood maltreatment ( ~ 7% of the sample) were 3 times more likely than their peers to also report IPV victimization at age 21, 4 times more likely at 26. The association between maltreatment and IPV was mostly due to environmental influences shared by co-twins (42-43%) and genetic influences (30-33%), as well as nonshared environmental influences (25-27%). The association between maltreatment and IPV was similar for women and men, but its etiology partly differed by sex. Maltreatment had a moderate effect on IPV in phenotypic models (β = 0.25-0.30), decreasing to a small-to-moderate range in causally informative models accounting for their common etiology (β = 0.15-0.21). Risk factors common to maltreatment and IPV victimization are largely familial in origin, environmental and genetic. Even considering common risk factors, experiencing maltreatment may be causally related to subsequent IPV victimization. Interventions promoting safe intimate relationships among young adults exposed to maltreatment are warranted and should address family-level environmental risk and individual-level risk shaped by genetics.

Revictimization of women victims of intimate partner violence in the French press: A social representations approach.

This study aims to analyze how the press portrays cases of revictimization experienced by women in France, through the lens of social representation theory. An exploratory, descriptive study was conducted using a corpus of 157 online press articles. A total of 187,773 words and 5,240 segments were analyzed using Iramuteq version 7, employing top-down hierarchical classification and lexical similarity analysis. The analysis identified four classes: 1. Violent incidents (25.5%); 2. Political actions against violence (26%); 3. Institutional revictimization (26.6%) and 4. Violence and breaking the silence (21.9%). The findings illustrate how media portrayals contribute to the construction of social representations surrounding revictimization. Class 1 reveals a focus on extreme cases of violence, such as femicides, and highlights a potential gender bias in media reporting through the omission of terms like 'femicide'. Class 2 demonstrates the influence of ideological perspectives on the portrayal of political measures against violence, with conservative outlets framing such actions within traditional values, while progressive newspapers advocate for systemic reform. Class 3 shows a gap in the conceptualization of institutional revictimization in the French press compared to other countries, revealing how conservative portrayals can minimize systemic issues and perpetuate harmful stereotypes. Class 4 shows the role of female journalists in addressing various forms of violence, despite the limited impact of the #MeToo movement in recent coverage. Collectively, these findings elucidate how media representations shape public attitudes and institutional responses to gender-based violence through the lens of social representations.

How Do People Make Sense of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in the Context of Perpetrator PTSD Diagnostic Status and Gender Identity?

Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) has profound effects on victim physical and mental health, considerable social and economic costs and is a significant public health concern. Research suggests that the way the public make sense of IPV may vary in different contexts, as certain contextual factors may be used to explain, excuse or legitimise IPV. PTSD diagnostic status and perpetrator gender may be such contextual factors, but little research exists in this area. Objectives: This study explored how the public make sense of IPV in the context of perpetrator diagnostic status (PTSD or no PTSD) and gender identity (female, male or nonbinary) by exploring IPV ratings and IPV discourses. Methods: Two hundred and sixty-five (265) community participants were recruited via snowball sampling and presented one of six versions of the same story containing an account of IPV. Stories were identical across conditions bar perpetrator diagnostic status and gender identity. Participants rated the degree to which they thought the behaviour in the story constituted IPV. Approximately half the participants also completed a story completion task, and stories were analysed for themes. Results: IPV ratings were weighted towards abuse and did not vary with diagnostic status or gender identity. Five themes were identified in participant stories: (i) characterise the behaviour; (ii) trajectory of IPV; (iii) show compassion towards victim of IPV; (iv) hold victim of IPV responsible; and (v) context influences decision-making. Limitations, implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Risk of death after type of intimate partner violence (IPV) involvement

Abstract Background Most studies have focused on women’s intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization but perpetration and bi-directional violence remain understudied. Methods Using linked criminal justice and population registers in Manitoba, Canada, we assessed the risk of death according to the role in IPV incidents (accused-only, victim-only, bidirectional, none). In this retrospective matched cohort study, we assembled a cohort of 212,068 adults who were followed from April 2004 to March 2023 to assess IPV incidents and subsequent death. Those involved in an IPV incident were 1:3 matched to persons with no history of IPV based on birth year, sex and marital status at the time of the incident. Results Men comprised 85% of accused-only, 21% of victim-only, and 50-51% in the other two groups. Overall, compared to those without IPV involvement, the adjusted Hazard Ratios for all-cause mortality were 1.38 [95% Confidence Intervals (CI): 1.28, 1.49] for accused-only, 1.39 (1.29, 1.50) for victim-only and 1.45 (1.19, 1.77) for bidirectional IPV. The associations were stronger among women, particularly that of bidirectional violence [1.24 (0.97, 1.60) among men and 1.92 (1.39, 2.66) among women]. Similar patterns were found for intentional mortality [0.96 (0.56, 1.64) among men and 2.43 (1.27, 4.65) among women]. Conclusions There are clear sex inequities in IPV involvement. Any type IPV involvement is associated with higher risk of death, particularly among women, who comprise most of the victims. Key messages • Any type IPV involvement is associated with higher risk of death, particularly among women, who comprise most of the victim. • Use of linked criminal justice data allows studying the consequences of IPV victimization, perpetration and bidirectional violence and monitor gender inequities over time.

Lessons to learn from pilot studies in clinical trials: The example of a trauma‐focused treatment for female survivors of intimate partner violence

AbstractBackgroundResearch on pilot studies is scarce, despite their importance for the development of effective clinical trials. There is a lack of work addressing the process, limitations and strategies derived from these studies. This gap is even more evident in research studying targeted populations, such as victims of intimate partner violence (IPV), who present specific difficulties, such as high dropout rates, or require the application of challenging treatments, such as trauma‐focussed exposure therapy.AimThis paper describes a pilot study (PS) implemented as a preliminary step in the development of a clinical trial (CT), in which a trauma‐focussed treatment for survivors of IPV with post‐traumatic symptomatology was applied. The problems identified in the PS and the solutions that were implemented in the CT are described. Additionally, comparisons between the PS and CT with respect to participant adherence to treatment and satisfaction, as perceived by the participants and the therapist, are analysed.ResultsResults indicate that satisfaction with the treatment was high in both studies; dropouts showed a significant decrease in the CT (25% in CT vs. 75% in the PS; p = .028), while group cohesion increased.ConclusionsIt is concluded that conducting pilot studies allows adapting treatments to the study population, which seems to increase the quality of clinical trials, subsequently improving the evidence of psychological interventions.

Co-occurrence of Intimate Partner Violence and Suicide Mortality Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States

PurposeSuicide is the second leading cause of death among people ages 10–24 in the United States (US). Intimate partner violence (IPV) is also prevalent, and studies suggest that IPV is associated with youth suicide risk. However, limited research has investigated such associations. We conducted an in-depth analysis of youth suicides that were preceded by or coincided with IPV (i.e., IPV-related) to characterize how decedents were involved in IPV, IPV types experienced, and prior legal systems involvement. MethodsUsing US National Violent Death Reporting System (2014–2018) data for suicide decedents aged 7–24 (n = 15,430 deaths), we manually reviewed case narratives for IPV-related suicides (n = 882) and coded details concerning IPV circumstances. We conducted bivariate analyses to compare IPV-related suicides to other (non-IPV) youth suicides and examined differences in antecedent circumstances between IPV perpetrators (n = 651) and victims (n = 81) using multivariable logistic regression. ResultsAmong IPV-related suicides, most decedents were male and were described as IPV perpetrators. Physical IPV was most frequently reported. Compared to decedents with a history of IPV perpetration, decedents with a history of IPV victimization were more often female and younger. Narratives of IPV victim decedents had higher odds of reporting physical IPV; narratives of IPV perpetrator decedents had higher odds of reporting psychological IPV. DiscussionFuture research should explore the relationship between IPV perpetration and suicide and potential impacts on surviving partners. Research and practice should seek to develop effective assessments and interventions for young people that address IPV and suicide risk simultaneously.

Empowering Salon Professionals: A Needs Assessment to Understand Training Preferences and Strategies for Addressing Sex Trafficking and Violence

ABSTRACT In some U.S. regions, laws mandate violence training for salon professionals, but Indiana has no current requirement. Our study surveyed 408 licensed salon professionals in Indiana to explore their experiences with violence and sex trafficking and their training preferences. Participants aged 18 to 70 came from all 92 counties, with most holding barber, cosmetologist, or massage therapist licenses. A significant majority (80.1%, n = 327) reported encounters with sex trafficking victims, and 88.0% (n = 359) noted interactions with intimate partner violence (IPV) victims. Barbers and instructors were more likely to encounter both IPV and sex trafficking victims compared to other professionals (χ2 = 7.45, p < .02; χ2 = 8.74, p < .01), while licensed estheticians and electrologists expressed significantly more uncertainty in responding to cases compared to non-licensed professionals (χ2 = 33.34, p < .001). Participants emphasized the need for mandatory violence prevention education covering intervention strategies, victim identification, resources, and safety plans. They also highlighted the importance of collaboration with state agencies, policymakers, and community partners. Longer-tenured professionals reported more frequent encounters with victims (F(2, 403) = 5.91, p < .01), reinforcing the need for ongoing, role-specific training to boost confidence in responding to suspected cases.

The relationship between intimate partner violence and parenting styles with mediated attachment styles in Iranian women

PurposeThe primary aim of this study was to investigate the role of attachment styles as intermediaries in the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and parenting styles among Iranian women.MethodsData for this study was collected between September and December 2020. The participants consisted of 102 women who had been referred to Social Emergency Centers in Isfahan due to their experiences with domestic violence. Participants filled out the Haj-Yahia Violence Questionnaire, Baumrind Parenting Styles Questionnaire (BPSQ), and the Attachment Styles Questionnaire (AAQ). To examine the hypothesized relationships, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used.ResultsEconomic IPV victimization was negatively related to secure attachment (β = − 0.309, p = 0.019) and positively related with authoritative parenting (β = 0.422, p = 0.019) and avoidant attachment style (β = 0.563, p = 0.000). There was a significant, positive relationship between sexual IPV victimization with secure and avoidant attachment styles (β = 0.351, p = 0.011; β = 0.407, p = 0.000). Authoritative parenting style was related to avoidant attachment (β = − 0.524, p = 0.015) and secure attachment (β = 0.371, p = 0.000).ConclusionsIranian IPV victims with secure attachment style were more likely to utilize authoritative parenting and those who have avoidant attachment were less likely to use authoritative parenting. Attachment styles may influence the relationship between IPV and parenting styles in Iranian women who have experienced IPV.

Applying tenets of code of the street to intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization

ABSTRACT While studies testing ‘code of the street’ have generally supported a relationship between it and various forms of violent and non-violent behaviors, including victimization, the theory has not been applied to explain intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration and victimization among college students. Recently, scholars have maintained that the code of the street may extend beyond the inner cities and may be applicable in explaining violent behavior by college students. Therefore, the main research question addressed in this study is how applicable, if at all, is tenets of code of the street in explaining intimate partner IPV perpetration and victimization among college students. Using a United States subsample of 4,162 college students contained in the cross-sectional International Dating Violence Study, results from logistic regression models showed that the tenets of code of the street is associated with IPV perpetration and victimization. More importantly, code of the street remains statistically significant even after controlling for well-documented risk markers of IPV. Implications of our findings suggest that intervention and prevention programs aimed at altering code of the street beliefs should reduce IPV perpetration and victimization. Further results, as well as the study’s limitations, are discussed.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Association between Childhood Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization/Perpetration in Adulthood in Africa.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is widespread in many African countries. Evidence, mainly from Western countries, shows that exposure to IPV in childhood is an important risk factor for experiences of IPV in adulthood. However, to date, no systematic review has synthesized the evidence on this association for individuals living in Africa, which is the goal of the current study. We used three search strategies: database searches (e.g., MEDLINE and PsycINFO), manual searches, and machine learning tools (e.g., Connected Papers). We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines and included peer-reviewed studies (in French or English) that reported quantitative or qualitative associations between childhood exposure to IPV and later IPV victimization/perpetration. A total of 48 studies from 29 African countries were included (N = 520,000 participants). Pooled effects indicated an association between childhood exposure to IPV and IPV victimization for females (odds ratio [OR] = 2.46, 95% CI [2.09, 2.91], p < .001) and males (OR = 1.76, 95% CI [1.57, 1.97], p < .001). Similarly, males (OR = 1.92, 95% CI [1.60, 2.29], p < .001) and females (OR = 3.04, 95% CI [2.51, 3.69], p < .001) who were exposed to IPV in childhood were more likely to perpetrate IPV compared to those with no childhood exposure. Effect sizes varied substantially across studies (0.89-5.66), suggesting that other risk factors should be considered in future studies. This review provides unique insights on cycles of IPV in Africa that may usefully inform practice and research.

The Proximal Association Between Cyber and In-Person IPV Among College Students.

Although some evidence suggests that cyber intimate partner violence (IPV) may increase the risk of in-person IPV, some have suggested that cyber IPV may circumvent in-person IPV. To address these mixed hypotheses, the present study tested the hypothesis that cyber IPV perpetration and victimization would associate with greater odds of same and next-day psychological, physical, and sexual IPV perpetration and victimization among college students. College students (N = 236; 73.73% cisgender women) in dating relationships completed a baseline questionnaire to assess demographic characteristics and past-year cyber, psychological, physical, and sexual IPV. Following baseline assessments, participants completed 60 consecutive days of surveys on cyber, psychological, physical, and sexual IPV perpetration and victimization (71.67% compliance). Hypotheses were partially supported. Cyber IPV perpetration positively associated with odds of same-day psychological IPV perpetration (aOR = 2.46, p = .02) and next-day sexual IPV perpetration (aOR = 3.32, p < .001). Cyber IPV victimization positively associated with odds of same-day psychological IPV victimization (aOR = 5.20, p = .00). Results demonstrate that college students experience IPV both online and in-person within a single day. Cyber IPV may be a targetable antecedent to in-person sexual and psychological IPV. Future research is needed to evaluate the impact of same- and next-day polyvictimization, bidirectional cyber and in-person IPV, and the effectiveness of targeting cyber IPV prevention programming among college students.

Alcohol use as a predictor of intimate partner violence in emerging adulthood: A dyadic daily diary investigation.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that alcohol preceded and increased the odds of intimate partner violence (IPV). These prior studies were restricted to one dyad member despite theory suggesting that acute alcohol use by both partners should increase the risk for IPV to a greater degree than when only one partner drinks. We hypothesized that alcohol use by both dyad members, relative to one or no dyad members, would proximally precede and increase the odds of IPV perpetration and victimization. A 60-day daily diary design was used, where both dyad members of dating couples completed independent reports on IPV perpetration/victimization and alcohol use via a secure survey website. Alcohol using college-student couples, aged 18-25 (n = 181 couples), from a Midwestern university in the United States participated. A convenience sample strategy was used. Daily surveys asked about alcohol use and IPV perpetration and victimization the prior day, including whether alcohol use preceded or followed IPV. The primary outcome was psychological IPV; secondary outcomes were physical and sexual IPV. Longitudinal random effects models suggested statistically significant associations between drinking behavior and IPV outcomes. The odds of psychological IPV perpetration were higher when both partners were drinking relative to one partner drinking [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.13, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.06-1.99]. Exploratory analyses showed some indication that the odds of physical IPV victimization were higher when both partners were drinking relative to one partner drinking (aOR = 2.09, 95% CI = 1.71-4.21). The risk for intimate partner violence appears to be greater when both partners drink, relative to one partner or neither partner.

Rejecting Identities: Stigma and Hermeneutical Injustice

ABSTRACT Hermeneutical injustice means being unjustly prevented from making sense of one’s experiences, identity or circumstances and/or communicating about them. The literature focusses almost exclusively on whether people have access to adequate conceptual resources. In this paper, we discuss a different kind of hermeneutical struggle caused by stigma. We argue that in some cases of hermeneutic injustice people have access to hermeneutical resources apt to understand their identity but reject employing these due to the stigma attached to the identity. We begin with a reinterpretation of one of the cases discussed in the literature, Edmund White’s novel A Boy’s Own Story. We argue that in this case hermeneutic resources are available but are rejected due to the stigma attached to homosexuality. We then present two analogous kinds of cases: alcohol addiction and being the victim of intimate partner violence. Here, too, hermeneutic injustice occurs because of the stigma attached to an identity rather due to unavailability of resources. We close by suggesting that these cases may, additionally, involve the wrong of ‘Tightlacing’: by meddling with their self-conception, stigma can manipulate individuals into a view of themselves that licenses inappropriate demands on them and makes them complicit in the erasure of their identities.

Social work research from a gender perspective into intimate partner violence against older women in Spain

ABSTRACT Intimate partner violence against older women is a hidden problem in Spain, which needs the involvement of institutions, professionals and families. This research aimed to shed light on social workers’ practices, and how they propose to perform ethical, efficient social work with older women who have been victims of intimate partner violence. In this descriptive, qualitative and exploratory study, we have compiled the expert voices of various social workers from urban and rural areas of Spain using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The results reveal the role of the family and social workers in early detection, together with the need to provide a more efficient professional response, and to create specific resources and devices to provide comprehensive, individualised solutions for each woman.

Tentative Causes of Brain and Neuropsychological Alterations in Women Victims of Intimate Partner Violence.

Victims of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women (IPVAW) experience neuropsychological and cerebral changes, which have been linked to several tentative causal mechanisms, including elevated cortisol levels, psychopathological disorders, traumatic brain injury (TBI), hypoxic/ischemic brain damage, and medical conditions related to IPVAW. While these mechanisms and their effects on brain function and neuropsychological health are well-documented in other clinical populations, they manifest with unique characteristics in women affected by IPVAW. Specifically, IPVAW is chronic and repeated in nature, and mechanisms are often cumulative and may interact with other comorbid conditions. Thus, in light of existing literature on neuropsychological alterations in other populations, and recognizing the distinct features in women who experience IPVAW, we propose a new theoretical model-the Neuro-IPVAW model. This framework aims to explain the complex interplay between these mechanisms and their impact on cognitive and brain health in IPVAW victims. We anticipate that this theoretical model will be valuable for enhancing our understanding of neuropsychological and brain changes related to intimate partner violence, identifying research gaps in these mechanisms, and guiding future research directions in this area.

Untold Stories of Displaced Rohingya Pregnant Women Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence in Camp Settings

Intimate partner violence (IPV) strongly impacts the physical, sexual, social, and reproductive health of women, causing an array of psychological and behavioural problems. During pregnancy, the detrimental effects of violence extend to both the mother and the child. Rates of IPV are frequently higher among those in conflict‐affected and displaced communities, most of whom live in low and middle‐income countries. IPV against Rohingya women is common due to relocation, family breakups, patriarchal norms, and deep‐seated gender roles. Despite the high prevalence of IPV in Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, the matter is often under‐examined. This qualitative study aims to explore and understand pregnant IPV victims’ unique experiences and hardships among the displaced population in a camp setting. A sample of six pregnant homemakers with no formal education was recruited from a healthcare service provider in Leda Camp 24, a remote camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. Semi‐structured, in‐depth, face‐to‐face interviews were conducted. Participants reported diverse manifestations of IPV victimisation. Physical abuse, emotional abuse, economic abuse, sexual abuse, pregnancy‐related consequences, and impact on mental health were commonly experienced by participants of this study. The current research investigates the recurrent abuse experienced by this demography, providing detailed narrative information beyond quantitative descriptions of IPV experiences. This article contributes to the existing knowledge on the intersection of IPV, pregnancy, and mental health among displaced populations. Governmental and non‐governmental stakeholders must contextualise these findings in policies and practices by integrating IPV and violence screening, prevention, and treatment protocols into refugee camps and healthcare service providers.

Parental socialization and adolescent dating violence victimization

There has been a great deal of research interest on intimate partner violence, but comparatively less research has been focused on adolescent dating victimization. The available research, however, shows that adolescent dating victimization is often a precursor to adulthood intimate partner violence victimization as well as a range of other maladaptive outcomes. The current study sought to examine whether parental socialization was associated with being the victim of adolescent dating violence. To do so, data from the National Longitudinal of Adolescent to Adult Health were analyzed. The results revealed that most of the parenting measures were unrelated to adolescent dating violence victimization, but that measures of self-control and delinquent peers emerged as consistent predictors for both males and females. These findings underscore the complex nature of adolescent dating victimization and highlight the importance of future research addressing this pressing social issue.

Risk Factors and Moderators of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization Versus Perpetration Among Women in Spain.

Bidirectional intimate partner violence (IPV) appears highly prevalent, but the extant literature, which has been dominated by work in North America, has not adequately accounted for how victimization overlaps with perpetration and how potential resources may interact with risk factors. A community sample of Spanish women completed measures of IPV approval, mental health risk factors (psychological distress and problematic substance use), and interpersonal resources (partner and social satisfaction). Using Mplus accounting for victimization and perpetration overlap, findings indicate that greater psychological distress and substance use were associated with IPV perpetration, and lower IPV approval was linked to victimization. Stronger partner satisfaction did not serve a buffering role but rather interacted to increase IPV perpetration; low social support was associated with victimization and exacerbated risk of perpetration.