Veterinary Consultation Research Articles

Identification of the Most Common Antibiotics Used for Broiler Chicken Production in Bangladesh

The use of antibiotics indiscriminately in broiler without any veterinary consultation added in feed and water in sub-therapeutic doses for prophylaxis and growth promotion has increased antibiotic resistant bacteria transmitting to human. The aim of the study was to identify the most common antibiotic used by the broiler in Bangladesh. In this survey engaged 208 Upazila Livestock Offices (ULO) for interviewing 385 broiler farmers and veterinary medicine sales representative in all 8 divisions. Use of antimicrobial drugs for broiler production in different farm, medicine and feed used in the current flock were targeted to identify. Factor analysis was used to select respondents’ knowledge variables and multinomial logistic regression was followed to determine factors associated with antibiotic used in broiler production. According to opinion of 208 Upazila Livestock officers, interview with farmer and veterinary medicine sales representative, everyone agreed the most of the farmers use antimicrobials for broiler production. The most common antibiotics were Amoxcillin (182/208), Ciprofloxacin (179/208), Colistin sulphate (167/208), oxytetracyclin (165/208), Enrofloxacin (146/208), Erythromycin (133/208), sulfaquinoxaline (46/208), followed by Gentamycin, Norfloxacin, Tiamulin, Tilmicosin, Toltrazuril, Doxicycline, flumequine, Neomycin, Tylosin, lincomycin, Flavomycin, Florfenicol and Clortetracycline. Under above circumstances large-scale use of antimicrobials had led to its resistance and residues in broiler chicken meat and liver which can lead to public health problems. The major broiler farm used antibiotics (amoxicillin and ciprofloxacin) and they did not follow withdrawal period. Although national regulations is in favor of control use of antibiotics, but were not well enforced.

Effects of Dietary Changes on Feline Obesity in Cats in the United States

Purpose: To aim of the study was to analyze the effects of dietary changes on feline obesity in cats in the United States. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Recent studies indicate that dietary changes play a crucial role in addressing feline obesity in the United States. Research shows that transitioning to high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets can significantly reduce weight gain and promote healthier body conditions in cats. Additionally, the incorporation of portion control and feeding schedules, alongside the use of specialized weight management foods, has been linked to effective weight loss in overweight felines. The findings also highlight the importance of increasing fiber content in cat diets, which aids in satiety and reduces overall calorie intake. Furthermore, educating pet owners about the impact of treats and the need for regular veterinary consultations can enhance dietary compliance and improve feline health outcomes. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Energy balance theory, obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS) theory & behavioral theory of eating may be used to anchor future studies on the effects of dietary changes on feline obesity in cats in the United States. Practically, to address feline obesity, pet owners and veterinarians should adopt several evidence-based dietary strategies. From a policy perspective, several key actions are recommended to address feline obesity on a broader scale.

Risk Communication on Zoonoses and Antimicrobial Resistance-How Do Exotic Pet Owners Perceive the Communication of Their Veterinarians?

Exotic animals traded and kept as pets can transmit a variety of diseases to humans and other animals, and vice versa. Therefore, it is essential for pet owners, particularly vulnerable groups, to be informed about associated risks. Veterinarians play a crucial role in informing pet owners about health risks associated with zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and should, therefore, have good communication skills to effectively transfer information to pet owners. Thus, exotic pet owners in Germany were surveyed on animal husbandry, veterinary consultation and risk communication. To evaluate the perception of communication, a self-developed questionnaire was used to derive a communication score. The perception of veterinarian communication received a high average score showing a high level of satisfaction. The duration of the veterinarian-client relationship was associated with better communication perception, and the frequency of communication on zoonoses and AMR was associated with the presence of a permanent veterinarian. However, the results indicated that the frequency of disseminated information on zoonoses and/or AMR from veterinarians was lower than desired by the pet owners. Therefore, more educational material on zoonoses and AMR should be made available, and the awareness concerning risk communication should be increased by further education and training at universities.

Veterinary Telemedicine in Lithuania: Analysis of the Current Market, Animal Owner Knowledge, and Success Factors for Digital Transformation of Clinics.

Veterinary telemedicine is used to provide animal health care information, education, and care remotely. Digital transformation of veterinary clinics is a fundamental process for the evolution of telemedicine and is changing the way veterinary care and animal health services are delivered. This study aimed to evaluate the current televeterinary market and to assess the knowledge of animal owners and clinic managers. The goals of this study were met by conducting an analysis of the current televeterinary market through a pet owner (n = 200) survey as well as clinic owner (n = 5) interviews. In contrast to other countries, only 1.85% of Lithuanian veterinary clinics offered a paid veterinary remote consultation service on their websites. In addition, more than half of animal owners who participated in the survey did not even know that remote veterinary consultations existed. The most important established factors for the success of digital transformation of veterinary telemedicine were investments in the marketing of the services, management leadership, the competencies and experience of veterinarians, convenient working hours for the client, faster service availability, and lower price. It is recommended to involve marketing and information technology company professionals and to invest in the specialty, digital, and communication skills of veterinarians.

Responsible ownership and health education can reduce the time of sporotrichosis treatment in domestic cats

Sporotrichosis is a widespread fungal infection that affects skin and subcutaneous tissues in humans and animals. In cats, it is displayed as nodules, ulcers and lesions on the nasal and respiratory mucosa. Antifungal treatment of cats is crucial but many cases are difficult, thus resulting in discontinue of the treatment, with disastrous consequences for the animal, encouraging contamination of the environment, other animals and people. The effects of responsible ownership education and health education for owners of cats with feline sporotrichosis as well as the interval between veterinary consultations on treatment outcomes for three groups of owners and their pet cats were evaluated in this study. The responsible ownership education and health education strategies consisted in videos in easy and accessible language for people with any level of education and were presented during consultations for two of the three groups included. The time between appointments was two weeks for two of the groups, and four weeks for one of the groups. The median of treatment time for the group without educational activities was 138 days, while for the other two groups it was 77.5 days and 86 days. It was found a significative reduction in the treatment time in the groups exposed to Responsible ownership education videos. There was no contamination of those responsible for home treatment, and the interval between monthly appointments did not impact on cure or death rates compared to the interval between fortnightly appointments. All these results can be applied to feline sporotrichoses treatment protocols increasing the owners treatment adherence and reducing either, the treatment discontinuation and the treatment costs and helps to control zoonotic sporotrichosis. The importance of attractive and comprehensible educational strategies as part of the feline sporotrichosis treatment protocol for the promotion of one health was highlighted.

Eficiencia técnica en la ganadería de carne bovina en Uruguay

Livestock farming is the agricultural activity with the greatest individual land-use, but it faces competition from other sectors for land, and is criticized for its environmental footprint. In this global context, Uruguay emerges as an important case study, boasting a long tradition and significance in the beef export sector. Enhancing livestock productivity is imperative to mitigate environmental impacts, and bolster farm competitiveness and food production. This study delves into the technical efficiency of cattle ranches focused on cow-calf production in Uruguay during the 2011 agricultural year, with nationwide and mandatory data coverage. Using data from the 2011 General Agriculture Census we estimate a translog stochastic production frontier model encompassing key inputs (livestock units, grazing area, and labor), along with control variables such as soil suitability and infrastructure improvements. Our findings underscore the potential to augment Uruguay's beef production by an average of 26.4%, harnessing existing resources and technology while improving ranch management. Moreover, variables like the extent of reliance on livestock farming as the primary source of income of the ranch, the use of outsourced services, foreign cattle ownership ratios, and agronomic and veterinary consultation exert noteworthy significant impacts on TE.

A study of knowledge, attitudes, and practices on ticks and tick-borne diseases of cattle among breeders of two bovine Portuguese autochthonous breeds

Beef cattle production in Portugal is an important sector of national agricultural production, with half of the herd being in the Alentejo region. Despite this, animal health is essential for its productivity, which may be compromised by ticks and tick-borne diseases. So far, no study has been conducted in Portugal to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) on ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle, which the authors are aware of. This type of questionnaire is a very useful tool in the development and application of effective and sustainable prevention and control measures. Therefore, a KAP questionnaire was applied to 44 cattle breeders of autochthonous Portuguese breeds, namely 14 breeders of the Alentejana breed and 30 of the Mertolenga breed, between January 1 and May 9, 2023. Based on the analysis criteria of these surveys, 64% of the Alentejana breeders and 63% of the Mertolenga breeders have an average level of knowledge about ticks and tick-borne diseases, and 21% of the Alentejana breeders and 33% of the Mertolenga breeders have a high level of knowledge. Although only 21.4% of the Alentejana and 36.7% of the Mertolenga breeders consider tick infestation as a major animal health problem, 71.4% of the Alentejana and 63.3% of breeders of the Mertolenga state that one of the main reasons for veterinary consultations on their farm is deworming of animals, and 92.9% of breeders of the Alentejana and 96.7% of breeders of the Mertolenga refer the use of dewormers as a strategy to control tick infestation. The results of this study contribute to highlighting the importance of correcting some identified knowledge gaps and improving knowledge, especially on the life cycle of this parasite, its local distribution and seasonality, resistance to acaricides, and alternative control strategies.

On-farm investments into dairy cow health: evidence from 15 case study countries.

Managing investments in dairy cow health at a national and global scale, requires an improved understanding of current on-farm expenses for cow health (e.g., expenditure for medicine and veterinary consultations). The aim of this study was to assess on-farm health investments for typical dairy farms in 15 case study countries, including Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, India, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Kenya, New Zealand, Uganda, UK, Uruguay, and USA. The study was conducted using a descriptive analysis of a secondary data set that was obtained from the International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN). The results suggest that health expenditures take up a relatively small proportion (<10%) of the annual total production costs per cow across all countries in the sample. The means of production costs (e.g., feed, machinery) can take up to 90% of the total production costs for highly intensive systems, while these costs can be as low as 9% for extensive systems. This study highlights the importance of understanding on-farm animal health investments as a contribution to improved national and global decision making about animal health in the dairy sector.

Web-Based Expert System for Early Diagnosis of Skin Diseases in Cats Using the Naïve Bayes Method

This journal discusses the development of a web-based expert system for early diagnosis of skin diseases in cats using the Naïve Bayes method. Skin disease in cats is a health problem that often occurs and requires fast and accurate diagnosis. This expert system is designed to assist cat owners and veterinarians in identifying potential causes of skin symptoms in cats. The Naïve Bayes method is used in this system because of its ability to process symptom data and produce predictions based on probability. Symptom data is collected from various sources and used to train a Naïve Bayes model. Next, the system allows users to enter symptoms observed in their cat, and the system will provide an initial diagnosis based on the information provided. The experimental results show that this expert system is able to provide an initial diagnosis of skin diseases in cats with a sufficient level of accuracy. This provides a great benefit to cat owners in taking early action and further veterinary consultation. Apart from that, this expert system can also be used as a supporting tool for veterinarians in the process of diagnosing skin diseases in cats. Thus, this research provides an important contribution to the development of expert systems in the field of animal health, especially in the early diagnosis of skin diseases in cats.

The weather determines the number of cases of tick paralysis in dogs and cats in eastern Australia, caused by Ixodes holocyclus, the eastern paralysis tick.

We studied over 222,000 cases of emergency veterinary consultations in four regions along the eastern coast of Australia. We found that cases of tick paralysis (TP) caused by the eastern paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus, accounted for 7.5% of these cases: >16,000 cases. The season of TP and the number (prevalence) of TP cases varied among regions and over the years. Our study of the association between weather and (i) the start of the season of TP, and (ii) the number of TP cases revealed much about the intricate relationship between the weather and I. holocyclus. We studied the effect of the hypothetical availability of isoxazoline-containing tick-preventative medicines and found that an increase in the availability of these medicines had significantly contributed to the decrease in TP cases. We found that the weather in winter accounted for the time of the year the season of TP starts whereas the weather in summer accounted for the number of TP cases in the TP season. Last, through a study of the effects of shifts in the climate under four hypothetical scenarios (warmer/cooler and drier/wetter than average), we propose that the start of the season of TP depends on how soon the weather in winter becomes suitable for the activity (e.g. host-seeking) and the development of I. holocyclus nymphs, and that the number of TP cases during the TP season depends on how many engorged female ticks and their eggs survive during summer.

Feedlot telemedicine

Feedlot Health Management Services by TELUS Agriculture and Consumer Goods was founded in 1983. The company’s cli­ent base as well as the scope, scale, and quality of services of­fered by FHMS has grown exponentially thanks to the early and ongoing adoption of technologies now collectively referred to telemedicine. The integration of remote diagnoses with near real-time individual health and production record keeping soft­ware allows veterinary consultants to provide ongoing surveil­lance and oversight in client operations.

Skin barrier in veterinary allergy or the animal [and human] skin protective hat

A main reason for veterinary consultation is related to dermatological conditions, with pruritus as a frequent complaint. Allergic-based Inflammatory conditions with several complications, such as alopecia and secondary infections, are common. Besides the immune-mediated triggering factors, assessment of the skin barrier, aiming restoring its effect stands essential. Defects in skin lipid and protein constitution are among human and animal skin barrier-impairing causes, favoring a deep penetration of different agents. Allergen and microorganism deep-skin penetration triggers an immune response, frequently associated to inflammation and itching, which may be enhanced by a genetic predisposition to sensitization and allergy. Human and dog skin show several constitutional similarities that have been identified as relevant for the barrier condition, which may influence both species susceptibility for allergy development and may allow for a two-way Human-dog model as both share the same environment, with the same exposome.

Conversation Analysis of Clients' Active Resistance to Veterinarians' Proposals for Long-Term Dietary Change in Companion Animal Practice in Ontario, Canada.

The impact of nutrition on animal health requires effective diet-related treatment recommendations in veterinary medicine. Despite low reported rates of veterinary clients' adherence with dietary recommendations, little is known about how clients' resistance to nutritional proposals is managed in the talk of veterinary consultations. This conversation-analytic study investigated clients' active resistance to veterinarians' proposals for long-term changes to cats' and dogs' diets in 23 segments from 21 videotaped appointments in Ontario, Canada. Clients' accounts suggested the proposals themselves or nutritional modifications were unnecessary, inappropriate, or unfeasible, most often based on patients' food preferences, multi-pet feeding issues, current use of equivalent strategies, or current enactment of the proposed changes. Resistance arose when veterinarians constructed proposals without first gathering relevant diet- and patient-related information, soliciting clients' perspectives, or educating them about the benefits of recommended changes. Veterinarians subsequently accommodated clients' concerns more often when resistance involved patient- or client-related issues rather than clients' lack of medical knowledge. The design of subsequent proposals accepted by clients frequently replaced dietary changes in the initial proposals with nutritional or non-nutritional alternatives and oriented to uncertainty about adherence. This study provides evidence-based findings for developing effective communication training and practice guidelines in nutritional assessment and shared decision-making.

Comparison of 2 sampling methods for molecular detection of bacteria or fungi from feline hair and scale specimens.

Skin diseases of cats are among the most frequent client motivations for a veterinary consultation. Both carpet and toothbrush sampling are commonly used to obtain hair and scale samples for microbiologic testing. Although molecular tests have become more accessible and more widely used by clinicians, the ideal collection method for clinical specimens is unclear. To assess their performance in retrieving microbial DNA from clinical samples, we compared the bacterial and fungal DNA load in hair and skin scale samples collected using carpet or toothbrush methods. We evaluated sample DNA yield using fluorometry, spectrophotometry, and quantitative PCR. Despite no measurable differences in sample weight, toothbrush samples yielded significantly higher bacterial (p = 0.028) and fungal (p = 0.005) DNA loads compared to carpet samples, regardless of disease status. The toothbrush method was more effective in harvesting microbial DNA from hair and skin scale samples.

Status of udder health performance indicators and implementation of on farm monitoring on German dairy cow farms: results from a large scale cross-sectional study.

Regional benchmarking data enables farmers to compare their animal health situation to that of other herds and identify areas with improvement potential. For the udder health status of German dairy cow farms, such data were incomplete. Therefore, the aim of this study was (1) to describe the incidence of clinical mastitis (CM), (2) to describe cell count based udder health indicators [annual mean test day average of the proportion of animals without indication of mastitis (aWIM), new infection risk during lactation (aNIR), and proportion of cows with low chance of cure (aLCC); heifer mastitis rate (HM)] and their seasonal variation, and (3) to evaluate the level of implementation of selected measures of mastitis monitoring. Herds in three German regions (North: n = 253; East: n = 252, South: n = 260) with different production conditions were visited. Data on CM incidence and measures of mastitis monitoring were collected via structured questionnaire-based interviews. Additionally, dairy herd improvement (DHI) test day data from the 365 days preceding the interview were obtained. The median (Q0.1, Q0.9) farmer reported incidence of mild CM was 14.8% (3.5, 30.8%) in North, 16.2% (1.9, 50.4%) in East, and 11.8% (0.0, 30.7%) in South. For severe CM the reported incidence was 4.0% (0.0, 12.2%), 2.0% (0.0, 10.8%), and 2.6% (0.0, 11.0%) for North, East, and South, respectively. The median aWIM was 60.7% (53.4, 68.1%), 59.0% (49.7, 65.4%), and 60.2% (51.5, 67.8%), whereas the median aNIR was 17.1% (13.6, 21.6%), 19.9% (16.2, 24.9%), and 18.3% (14.4, 22.0%) in North, East, and South, respectively with large seasonal variations. Median aLCC was ≤1.1% (≤ 0.7%, ≤ 1.8%) in all regions and HM was 28.4% (19.7, 37.2%), 35.7% (26.7, 44.2%), and 23.5% (13.1, 35.9%), in North, East and South, respectively. Participation in a DHI testing program (N: 95.7%, E: 98.8%, S: 89.2%) and premilking (N: 91.1%, E: 93.7%, S: 90.2%) were widely used. Several aspects of udder health monitoring, including exact documentation of CM cases, regular microbiological analysis of milk samples and the use of a veterinary herd health consultancy service were not applied on many farms. The results of this study can be used by dairy farmers and their advisors as benchmarks for the assessment of the udder health situation in their herds.

2 Challenges in Breeding and Genetics

Abstract Over the past 50 years tremendous advances were made in reproductive and genetic technologies that are available for beef cow-calf producers. In addition, extensive research has been done to establish the efficacy and economic advantages of adoption of such technologies. Nonetheless, adoption of reproductive and genetic technologies in beef cow-calf operations remain poor, especially when compared with dairy production. The USDA – National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) performs a survey of cow-calf management practices, with the latest survey performed in 2017. According to the NAHMS survey the majority (58.7%) of cow-calf operations in the U.S. do not have a defined breeding season, with 69.5% of operations in the southeast (SE) failing to adopt a defined breeding season. Reproductive technology adoption is poor, with only 37.5% of all operations utilizing at least one reproductive technology, with 78.1% of larger operations (&amp;gt;200 cows) utilizing at least one reproductive technology, compared with 30.4% of small operations (&amp;lt; 50 cows). Semen evaluation was the leading technology with 19.7% overall adoption, followed by palpation for pregnancy with 19.3%, artificial insemination with 11.6% and estrus synchronization with only 7.3%. The SE is behind the rest of the country on adoption of technology with only 22.1% of the operations adopting at least one reproductive technology, with the North-Central region leading the country with 58.3% of operations adopting at least one reproductive technology. Nationally, most heifers and nearly all cows were exposed only to bulls (76.8 and 92.9 %, respectively), with a greater percentage of heifers (15.1 %) than cows (5.5 %) being artificially inseminated and followed by natural service breeding. A total of 90.7% of all beef females were exposed to natural service only, clearly demonstrating that artificial insemination is not widely adopted by U.S. beef operations. Veterinary consultation also remains below expectations, with only 52.8% of operations consulting a veterinarian every year, and disease diagnosis and treatment being the most common reason (37.3%). The East U.S. remains behind the rest of the country with only 41% of beef operations consulting a veterinarian on a yearly basis. When making decisions about breeding and genetics, 21.5% of producers rated Extension services as slightly useful and 22.6% rated Veterinarians as very useful, with most (23.6) producers consulting other producers. Adoption of reproductive and genetic technologies remains below expectations for the entire U.S. with the East and SE regions lagging behind the rest of the country. Perhaps the fact that the vast majority (84.2% in the U.S., and 89.9% in East) of beef cow-calf producers list their operations as a supplemental source of income remains the most difficult challenge to increase adoption of technologies.

Dog Owners’ Attitude toward Veterinary Antibiotic Use and Antibiotic Resistance with a Focus on Canine Diarrhea Management

An ad hoc questionnaire was designed in order to investigate AMR knowledge amongst Italian dog owners, owner expectations concerning pharmacological treatment of canine AD, and client attitudes towards and compliance with alternative strategies to antimicrobial administration. A total of 250 questionnaires were returned. Most of respondents were female, aged 36-70 and workers. More than a half of participants owned one dog with mixed breed, with Labrador retriever, golden retriever, dachshund, and border collie being the most represented breeds. On average, each dog was treated with an oral antibiotic 1.044 times per year. Intestinal diseases were among the main reasons (19%) for antibiotic prescription. Oral antibiotic courses without veterinary consultation (21%) and anticipated termination of the therapy (17.1%) were less common than reported elsewhere. The majority of respondents knew the meaning of AMR with a significant inverse association between the level of education and the tendency to administer antimicrobials without consulting a clinician (p = 0.004). Most of the owners expected a rapid recovery of clinical signs after a first episode of AD and accepted natural dietary supplementation for treating the condition. Ninety-five percent of the respondents believed that public funding should be spent to study AMR. Even though an acceptable degree of AMR awareness emerged, we feel that further efforts should be made to increase public AMR knowledge and to stimulate proactive measures to fight the phenomenon. On the other hand, the development of guidelines for the treatment of uncomplicated canine AD would help clinicians to rationalize antimicrobial use.

Evaluation of dietary histories in cats presenting with chronic gastrointestinal clinical signs to a veterinary teaching hospital.

Although less frequently described than in dogs, it is also well recognised in cats that chronic gastrointestinal (GI) disease can fully respond to dietary changes only. So far, no study has assessed how much dietary information can be obtained during veterinary consultations. We retrospectively evaluated how much dietary information was available when owners presenting their cats to our gastroenterology (GE) and internal medicine (IM) service between October 2017 and January 2020 were questioned during consultations. Because of the larger IM caseload, for each week the first two cats presenting with chronic GI signs were selected for the IM group. Data from 80 cats presenting for first GE consultations were compared with data from 84 cats presenting with chronic GI signs for first IM consultations. Referrals comprised 42/80 (53%) GE cats and 53/84 (63%) IM cats. Referral documents mentioned the previously fed diet in 12/42 (29%) GE and 4/53 (8%) IM cats, and response to that previous diet trial was recorded in the referral documents of 4/12 (33%) GE and 3/4 (75%) IM cats. No cat had received more than one previous diet trial. During consultations, owners of 61/80 (76%) GE and 53/84 (63%) IM cats were asked about diet. Irrespective of referral status, previous dietary trials had been performed in 27/61 (44%) GE and 19/53 (36%) IM cats. The specific diet fed at the time of consultation could be named by 37/61 (61%) GE and 11/53 (21%) IM cat owners. Overall dietary information gained from referring veterinarians and owners was often incomplete. Although more information could be gained from owners during GE consultations vs IM consultations, awareness of the importance of diet in cats with GI disease still appears to be low among veterinarians and cat owners. Future studies need to assess if more complete dietary information can be obtained at the time of consultations with a prospective study design.

Broadening the Veterinary Consultation: Dog Owners Want to Talk about More than Physical Health.

Few veterinary professionals use formal quality of life (QOL) assessment tools despite their recommendation from veterinary governing bodies to enable holistic welfare assessments and target welfare improvement strategies. Perceived barriers include resistance from owners, and this study aimed to elucidate understanding of dog owner engagement with conversations and tools relating to QOL. An online survey that investigated owner experience, comfort, and opinions about vet-client discussions on topics connected to canine health and well-being, including QOL, was completed by 410 owners. Almost all owners (95.8%) were reportedly comfortable discussing QOL, yet only 32% reported their vets had addressed it. A high proportion of owners (70.8%) expressed interest in assessment tools, but only 4.4% had experienced one, none of which were QOL tools per se. Semi-structured interviews of a sub-set of four owners provided a more in-depth examination of their experience of a health and well-being assessment tool. Thematic analysis generated three themes: 'Use of assessment tools supports client-vet relationship and empowers owners', 'Owners want to talk about holistic dog care', and 'Owner feelings on the wider application of assessment tools'. Overall, our findings suggest that owners want to broaden the veterinary consultation conversation to discuss QOL and are interested in using tools, and therefore veterinary perceptions of owner-related barriers to tool application appear unfounded. Indeed, tool uptake appears to improve the vet-client relationship and boost owner confidence.

REVIEW ON THE IMPACTS OF DRUG RESIDUE IN ANIMALS PRODUCT ON HUMANS HEALTH ISSUES

The use of veterinary drugs in food-producing animals may result in drug residues in foodstuffs such as meat, milk, eggs, or honey. High degree of antibiotics residues consumption from animal products to human might affect immunological reactions and can unfavourably influence digestive microbiota in susceptible people. Antimicrobials also known as antibiotics, anti-infectives, antibacterials or chemotherapeutics, include synthetic and natural compounds. The introduction of antibiotics to the veterinary field started soon after the use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases in humans. Detection of drug residues from tissues and other animal products could be quite an expensive, time consuming and laborious venture. To determine the withdrawal period, regulatory authorities must employ a scientific process that includes establishing the Maximum Residue Limit for that medicine. The growing use of antimicrobials to prevent and treat diseases, increases the probability of residues of these substances in products obtained from animals. Resistant microorganism can get access to human, either through direct contact or indirectly via milk, meat, and or egg. The ongoing threat of antibiotic contamination is one of the biggest challenges to public health that is faced not only by the African people, but also by the human population worldwide. Globally, more than half of all medicines are prescribed, dispensed or sold improperly. The first step in residue prevention is to make individuals and organizations aware of the problem through education by means of scientific literature, computer databases, veterinary consultations and the efforts of national organizations.