Vertical Migration Of Zooplankton Research Articles

The influence of sea ice, wind speed and marine mammals on Southern Ocean ambient sound.

This paper describes the natural variability of ambient sound in the Southern Ocean, an acoustically pristine marine mammal habitat. Over a 3-year period, two autonomous recorders were moored along the Greenwich meridian to collect underwater passive acoustic data. Ambient sound levels were strongly affected by the annual variation of the sea-ice cover, which decouples local wind speed and sound levels during austral winter. With increasing sea-ice concentration, area and thickness, sound levels decreased while the contribution of distant sources increased. Marine mammal sounds formed a substantial part of the overall acoustic environment, comprising calls produced by Antarctic blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus intermedia), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), Antarctic minke whales (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) and leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx). The combined sound energy of a group or population vocalizing during extended periods contributed species-specific peaks to the ambient sound spectra. The temporal and spatial variation in the contribution of marine mammals to ambient sound suggests annual patterns in migration and behaviour. The Antarctic blue and fin whale contributions were loudest in austral autumn, whereas the Antarctic minke whale contribution was loudest during austral winter and repeatedly showed a diel pattern that coincided with the diel vertical migration of zooplankton.

Oxygen cycling in the northern Benguela Upwelling System: Modelling oxygen sources and sinks

This paper elucidates the oxygen dynamics in the northern Benguela Upwelling System by means of process oriented, numerical modelling. Owing to the complex physical-biological interaction in this system, a coupled hydrodynamic-biogeochemical model is required to grasp the various aspects of the oxygen dynamics. We used high-resolution atmospheric fields derived from observations to force our model, available since 1999. The model results represent a 15years, consistent data set of realistic hydrographic and ecosystem variables, including oxygen distribution patterns. After a concise description of the main aspects of the model, we use the model data to analyse the components contributing to the oxygen dynamics, namely, the ocean circulation, the exchange between ocean and atmosphere as well as the local biogeochemical oxygen cycling in the system. We thoroughly validate the model with available field observations and remote sensing data. The strengths of coastal upwelling, which controls the nutrient supply to the euphotic zone, as well as the poleward undercurrent that carries oxygen and nutrients to the shelf in the northern Benguela Upwelling System are well reproduced in the model. Among the biological oxygen sinks, mineralisation in the sediment, respiration of zooplankton and nitrification in the water column are important. We also found that vertical migration of zooplankton in response to the oxygen conditions provides a regulating feedback, which may prevent a complete deoxygenation of suboxic waters. As long as oxygen or nitrate are available in the bottom waters, the activities of chemolithoautotrophic sulphur bacteria on the sediment surface keep the redoxcline within the sediment and prevent the release of hydrogen sulphide into the water column. By horizontal integration of the simulated ocean-atmosphere oxygen flux, it can be shown that the Kunene upwelling cell between 16°S and 18°S is a boundary between the equatorial ocean, characterise by weak oxygen release to the atmosphere, and the subtropical Benguela Upwelling System governed by an enhanced and seasonal varying flux. Furthermore, a comparison of oxygen fluxes controlled by physical transport versus biogeochemical processes shows that the physical processes dominate in the northern Benguela Upwelling System.

Seasonal and interannual changes in the sound scattering layer at deep-sea floor in the Amundsen Sea, Antarctica

Vertical migration of zooplankton is ubiquitous behavior in marine plankton community; however, seasonal and interannual behavior are little observed in the deep sea under seasonal varying sea ice. Here, the first evidence that sound scattering layers of zooplankton can support the knowledge for understanding the effect of climate change is presented, based on four-years acoustic backscattering strengths in the Amundsen Sea, Antarctica. Amundsen Sea is a biological hotspot region with the rapid oceanic melting of the ice shelf as well as the most productive (per unit area) in the Antarctic. High-temporal resolution profiles of acoustic backscattering strength collected from a bottom-moored, upward looking Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler were examined to describe the temporal variation of sound scattering layers. Our observations show that sound scattering layers exhibited clear diel, seasonal, and interannual pattern associated with solar radiation, sea ice concentration, and phytoplankton biomass. The timing of seasonal variation is also closely related with climate index for Southern Annular Mode and El Niño Southern Oscillation. This observation points out that acoustic signals from sound scattering layers could be a proxy to understand zooplankton ecosystem response to climate shifts.

Variability of mesozooplankton biomass and individual size in <em>a</em> coast-offshore transect in the Catalan Sea: relationships with chlorophyll <em>a</em> and hydrographic features

The temporal and spatial changes of zooplankton and chlorophyll a concentration were studied during the warm stratification period (early June) at three stations whose traits corresponded to the coastal, frontal, and offshore-dome water conditions described for the Catalan Sea. We sampled the stations for 12 days at a frequency ranging from less than 10 to 10 2 h, with a spatial resolution ranging from 10 to 10 4 m. The objective was to determine the variability of mesozooplankton and phytoplankton (chlorophyll a ) biomass, and average individual size (mass) across a coast-offshore transect in relation to the stratification conditions prevailing in the NW Mediterranean during summer. The vertical distribution of phytoplankton biomass displayed a clear deep maximum at 60 m depth except at the coastal station. This maximum exists during most of the year and is especially important during the density stratification period. It was accompanied during daylight hours by a coherent zooplankton maximum. At sunset mesozooplankton ascended and dispersed, with larger organisms from deeper layers joining the migrating community and increasing the average individual mass. The highest variability of mesozooplankton biomass, individual mass and chlorophyll a concentration occurred at the front station due to the coupling between the vertical migration of zooplankton and the particular characteristics of the front. According to the data shown, the highest variability was observed at the lowest scales.

Vertical redistribution of zooplankton in an oligotrophic lake associated with reduction in ultraviolet radiation by wildfire smoke

AbstractWe used a natural experiment to test whether wildfire smoke induced changes in the vertical distribution of zooplankton in Lake Tahoe by decreasing incident ultraviolet radiation (UV). Fires have a variety of effects on aquatic ecosystems, but these impacts are poorly understood and have rarely been observed directly. UV is an important driver of zooplankton vertical migration, and wildfires may alter it over large spatial scales. We measured UV irradiance and the distribution of zooplankton on two successive days. On one day, smoke haze from a nearby wildfire reduced incident UV radiation by up to 9%, but not irradiance in the visible spectrum. Zooplankton responded by positioning themselves, on average, 4.1 m shallower in the lake. While a limited data set such as this requires cautious interpretation, our results suggest that smoke from wildfires can change the UV environment and distribution of zooplankton. This process may be important in drought‐prone regions with increasingly frequent wildfires, and globally due to widespread biomass burning.

Diel vertical migration of zooplankton at the S1 biogeochemical mooring revealed from acoustic backscattering strength

AbstractWe examined the diel vertical migration of zooplankton by using the backscatter strength obtained from moored acoustic Doppler current profilers at mooring site S1 in the North Pacific subtropical gyre. There was seasonal variability in the vertical distribution and migration of the high‐backscatter layers in that they became deeper than the euphotic zone (<100 m) in winter and were confined above this depth in other seasons. Seasonal changes in daylight hours also affected the timing of the diel migration. We found that lunar cycles affected vertical distributions of zooplankton near the surface by changing the light intensity. Physical events, such as mixed‐layer deepening and restratification and the passage of a mesoscale eddy, also affected zooplankton behavior possibly by changing food environment in the euphotic zone. Since the comparison with net samples indicated that the backscatter likely represents the bulk biomass, the accuracy of biomass estimates based on net samples could be influenced by the high temporal variability of zooplankton distributions.

Towards developing a general framework for modelling vertical migration in zooplankton

Diel vertical migration (DVM) of zooplankton is a widespread phenomenon in both oceans and lakes, and is generally considered to be the largest synchronized movement of biomass on Earth. Most existing mathematical models of DVM are based on the assumption that animals maximize a certain criterion such as the expected reproductive value, the venturous revenue, the ratio of energy gain/mortality or some predator avoidance function when choosing their instantaneous depth. The major shortcoming of this general point of view is that the predicted DVM may be strongly affected by a subjective choice of a particular optimization criterion. Here we argue that the optimal strategy of DVM can be unambiguously obtained as an outcome of selection in the underlying equations of genotype/traits frequency dynamics. Using this general paradigm, we explore the optimal strategy for the migration across different depths by zooplankton grazers throughout the day. To illustrate our ideas we consider four generic DVM models, each making different assumptions on the population dynamics of zooplankton, and demonstrate that in each model we need to maximize a particular functional to find the optimal strategy. Surprisingly, patterns of DVM obtained for different models greatly differ in terms of their parameters dependence. We then show that the infinite dimensional trait space of different zooplankton trajectories can be projected onto a low dimensional space of generalized parameters and the genotype evolution dynamics can be easily followed using this low-dimensional space. Using this space of generalized parameters we explore the influence of mutagenesis on evolution of DVM, and we show that strong mutagenesis allows the coexistence of an infinitely large number of strategies whereas for weak mutagenesis the selection results in the extinction of most strategies, with the surviving strategies all staying close to the optimal strategy in the corresponding mutagenesis-free system.

Moonlight Drives Ocean-Scale Mass Vertical Migration of Zooplankton during the Arctic Winter

In extreme high-latitude marine environments that are without solar illumination in winter, light-mediated patterns of biological migration have historically been considered non-existent [1]. However, diel vertical migration (DVM) of zooplankton has been shown to occur even during the darkest part of the polar night, when illumination levels are exceptionally low [2, 3]. This paradox is, as yet, unexplained. Here, we present evidence of an unexpected uniform behavior across the entire Arctic, in fjord, shelf, slopeand open sea, where vertical migrations of zooplankton are driven by lunar illumination. A shift from solar-day (24-hr period) to lunar-day (24.8-hr period) vertical migration takes place in winter when the moon rises above the horizon. Further, mass sinking of zooplankton from the surface waters and accumulation at a depth of ∼50m occurs every 29.5days in winter, coincident with the periods offull moon. Moonlight may enable predation of zooplankton by carnivorous zooplankters, fish, and birds now known to feed during the polar night [4]. Although primary production is almost nil at this time, lunar vertical migration (LVM) may facilitate monthly pulses of carbon remineralization, as they occur continuously in illuminated mesopelagic systems [5], due to community respiration of carnivorous and detritivorous zooplankton. The extent of LVM during the winter suggests that the behavior is highly conserved and adaptive and therefore needs to be considered as "baseline" zooplankton activity in a changing Arctic ocean [6-9]. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

High particulate organic carbon export during the decline of a vast diatom bloom in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean

Carbon fixation by phytoplankton plays a key role in the uptake of atmospheric CO2 in the Southern Ocean. Yet, it still remains unclear how efficiently the particulate organic carbon (POC) is exported and transferred from ocean surface waters to depth during phytoplankton blooms. In addition, little is known about the processes that control the flux attenuation within the upper twilight zone. Here, we present results of downward POC and particulate organic nitrogen fluxes during the decline of a vast diatom bloom in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean in summer 2012. We used thorium-234 (234Th) as a particle tracer in combination with drifting sediment traps (ST). Their simultaneous use evidenced a sustained high export rate of 234Th at 100m depth in the weeks prior to and during the sampling period. The entire study area, of approximately 8000km2, showed similar vertical export fluxes in spite of the heterogeneity in phytoplankton standing stocks and productivity, indicating a decoupling between production and export. The POC fluxes at 100m were high, averaging 26±15mmol Cm−2d−1, although the strength of the biological pump was generally low. Only <20% of the daily primary production reached 100m, presumably due to an active recycling of carbon and nutrients. Pigment analyses indicated that direct sinking of diatoms likely caused the high POC transfer efficiencies (~60%) observed between 100 and 300m, although faecal pellets and transport of POC linked to zooplankton vertical migration might have also contributed to downward fluxes.

Biomixing due to diel vertical migrations of zooplankton: Comparison of computational fluid dynamics model with observations

Recent studies (Dewar et al., 2006; Wilhelmus and Dabiri, 2014) suggest that diel vertical migrations (DVM) of zooplankton (or other migrating organisms) may have an impact on ocean mixing, though details are not completely clear. Zooplankton that undergo DVM can have an impact on oil transport through the water column, and oil and dispersants can have a negative or even lethal effect on the organisms. Kunze et al. (2006) reported an increase of dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy, ε, by four to five orders of magnitude during DVM of zooplankton over background turbulence in Saanich Inlet, British Columbia, Canada. However, the effect was not observed in the same area by Rousseau et al. (2010) and was later reassessed by Kunze (2011). In our work, an 11-month data set obtained in the Straits of Florida with a bottom-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler revealed strong sound scattering layers undergoing DVM. We used a 3-D non-hydrostatic computational fluid dynamics model with Lagrangian particle injections (a proxy for migrating organisms) via a discrete phase model to simulate the effect of turbulence generation by DVM. We tested a range of organism concentrations from 1000 to 10,000 organisms/m3 based on measurements by Greenlaw (1979) and Mackie and Mills (1983) in Saanich Inlet. At a concentration close to the upper limit, the simulation showed an increase in ε by two to three orders of magnitude during DVM over background turbulence, 10−9 W kg−1. At a concentration of 1000 organisms/m3, almost no turbulence above the background level was produced in the model. These results suggest that the Kunze et al. (2006) observations could have been performed at a larger concentration of migrating zooplankton than those reported by Rousseau et al. (2010). No exact zooplankton concentrations data were provided in either work. The difference between observations and the model can, in part, be explained by the fact that Kunze et al. (2006) measured instantaneous profiles of ε, while the model results on ε were averaged horizontally over the 50 m by 50 m domain. In the Straits of Florida, we observed a small decrease in northward current velocity profiles during migration times after averaging over 11 months of observations. The computational fluid dynamics model reproduced this decrease of current velocity due to turbulence generated by DVM in the Straits of Florida model case. The deviations in the velocity profiles can be explained by the increase in turbulent mixing during vertical migration periods. Comparison of observational data to the model results was complicated by physical factors such as tides, Florida Current meandering, etc., which may have a stronger effect on current velocity profiles than DVM.

Small-scale diel vertical migration of zooplankton in the High Arctic

Diel vertical migration (DVM) of zooplankton is considered less prominent at high latitudes where diel changes in irradiance are minimal during periods of midnight sun and polar night, leaving zooplankton without a temporal refuge and thus eliminating a key advantage of DVM. One of the shortcomings of previous DVM studies of zooplankton based on net sampling is that the depth resolution often has been too coarse to detect vertical migrations over short distances. We investigated DVM of zooplankton during August 2010 in drifting sea ice northeast of Svalbard (~81.5°N, ~30.5°E). Classical DVM behaviour (midnight rising, midday sinking) was observed between 20 and 80 m in young copepodite stages (CI–III) of Calanus finmarchicus and Calanus glacialis. The copepods Microcalanus spp., Pseudocalanus spp., Oithona atlantica, Oithona similis and Triconia borealis, alongside Eukrohnia hamata, Limacina helicina, and Fritillaria spp., all displayed signs of DVM. We conclude that zooplankton exhibit DVM in ice-covered waters over rather short distances to optimise food intake in the presence of predators.

The role of ultraviolet radiation in the diel vertical migration of zooplankton: an experimental test of the transparency-regulator hypothesis

Zooplankton diel vertical migration (DVM) is often explained as a balance between predator avoidance and resource acquisition. However, recent studies suggest that ultraviolet radiation (UV) may also be important in driving zooplankton DVM in some systems. Williamson et al. (Williamson et al., 2011) proposed the “transparency-regulator hypothesis,” which integrates UV into our current understanding of the drivers of DVM and predicts that the relative roles of UVand visual predation pressure will vary systematically across a gradient of lake transparency. To assess this hypothesis, we conducted in situ mesocosm experiments in five different lakes: two lakes without fish and three lakes with fish that spanned a range of UV and visible light transparency. We used an open-bottomed mesocosm design that allowed for the direct manipulation of UV that did not constrain visual predators or the amplitude or timing of natural migrations. Consistent with the transparency-regulator hypothesis, we found that UV is an important driver of Daphnia DVM in highly UV transparent lakes with and without fish but not in low transparency systems. Our results also suggest that UVand visual predation pressure may interact in systems of intermediate transparency.

Open ocean dead zones in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean

Abstract. Here we present first observations, from instrumentation installed on moorings and a float, of unexpectedly low (&lt;2 μmol kg−1) oxygen environments in the open waters of the tropical North Atlantic, a region where oxygen concentration does normally not fall much below 40 μmol kg−1. The low-oxygen zones are created at shallow depth, just below the mixed layer, in the euphotic zone of cyclonic eddies and anticyclonic-modewater eddies. Both types of eddies are prone to high surface productivity. Net respiration rates for the eddies are found to be 3 to 5 times higher when compared with surrounding waters. Oxygen is lowest in the centre of the eddies, in a depth range where the swirl velocity, defining the transition between eddy and surroundings, has its maximum. It is assumed that the strong velocity at the outer rim of the eddies hampers the transport of properties across the eddies boundary and as such isolates their cores. This is supported by a remarkably stable hydrographic structure of the eddies core over periods of several months. The eddies propagate westward, at about 4 to 5 km day−1, from their generation region off the West African coast into the open ocean. High productivity and accompanying respiration, paired with sluggish exchange across the eddy boundary, create the "dead zone" inside the eddies, so far only reported for coastal areas or lakes. We observe a direct impact of the open ocean dead zones on the marine ecosystem as such that the diurnal vertical migration of zooplankton is suppressed inside the eddies.

Attenuation of particulate organic carbon flux in the Scotia Sea, Southern Ocean, is controlled by zooplankton fecal pellets

AbstractThe Southern Ocean (SO) is an important CO2 reservoir, some of which enters via the production, sinking, and remineralization of organic matter. Recent work suggests that the fraction of production that sinks is inversely related to production in the SO, a suggestion that we confirm from 20 stations in the Scotia Sea. The efficiency with which exported material is transferred to depth (transfer efficiency) is believed to be low in high‐latitude systems. However, our estimates of transfer efficiency are bimodal, with stations in the seasonal ice zone showing intense losses and others displaying increases in flux with depth. Zooplankton fecal pellets dominated the organic carbon flux and at stations with transfer efficiency &gt;100% fecal pellets were brown, indicative of fresh phytodetritus. We suggest that active flux mediated by zooplankton vertical migration and the presence of sea ice regulates the transfer of organic carbon into the oceans interior in the Southern Ocean.

Spatial and predatory interactions of visually preying nonindigenous zooplankton and fish in Lake Michigan during midsummer

A plankton survey system, fisheries acoustics, and opening/closing nets were used to define fine-scale diel vertical spatial interactions among non-indigenous alewives and visually preying cercopagids (Bythotrephes longimanus and Cercopagis pengoi) and indigenous zooplankton in nearshore and offshore Lake Michigan during August 2004. Because of increased water clarity associated with dreissenid mussel expansion and radically different thermal structure between cruises, we were able to observe the effects of thermal structure on diel vertical migration under high light conditions favorable especially to visual predation by cercopagids. Vertical position and overlap between alewives, Bythotrephes, and Daphnia mendotae at a 60-m site were strongly driven by thermal structure. Daphnia showed the strongest diel vertical migration of zooplankton that included migration between the epilimnion at night and the metalimnion–hypolimnion boundary during the day, whereas its major predator, Bythotrephes, was confined at all times to the epilimnion–metalimnion. Some alewives migrated from the hypolimnion to the metalimnion and epilimnion at night. As a result, most spatial overlap of Daphnia, Bythotrephes, and alewives occurred at night. Simple bioenergetics models were used to contrast predatory interactions between alewives and cercopagids at nearshore and offshore sites. Bythotrephes was the preferred prey of alewives, and at the 10-m site, alewives were the major controller of zooplankton because of its elimination of Bythotrephes. In contrast, Bythotrephes offshore likely escaped predation because of low spatial overlap with a low concentration of alewives and was the major predator and shaper of zooplankton community structure.

Acoustic backscatter observations with implications for seasonal and vertical migrations of zooplankton and nekton in the Amundsen shelf (Antarctica)

High-temporal resolution profiles of acoustic backscatter were collected in the Dotson Trough on the Amundsen shelf in the Antarctica, using a bottom-moored, upward-looking acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP). This data set was used to examine the impact of seasonal variations in surface solar radiation (SSR), sea ice concentration (SIC), and Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) thickness on acoustic backscatter in the lower water column (250−540-m depth). A recorded high acoustic backscatter (−75 to −70 dB) at depth >400 m from April to November compared to the rest of the year (−90 to −80 dB) suggests that zooplankton and nekton migrated towards the bottom during winter. The depth of maximum mean volume backscattering strength showed a significant correlation with SSR, SIC and CDW thickness. A daily cycle of vertical migration was also recorded. This varied with changing surface ice conditions. When sea ice cover was low, the acoustic backscatter descended at sunrise, and ascended at sunset. When sea ice cover was high, the daily migration was not pronounced, and the layer of high acoustic backscatter remained near the bottom. This is the first study of seasonal and vertical migration of zooplankton and nekton that has been conducted on the Amundsen Sea shelf, one of the world's most productive areas. The findings provide implications to understand the behavior of zooplankton and nekton below the euphotic zone in the Southern Ocean.

Arctic complexity: a case study on diel vertical migration of zooplankton.

Diel vertical migration (DVM) of zooplankton is a global phenomenon, characteristic of both marine and limnic environments. At high latitudes, patterns of DVM have been documented, but rather little knowledge exists regarding which species perform this ecologically important behaviour. Also, in the Arctic, the vertically migrating components of the zooplankton community are usually regarded as a single sound scattering layer (SSL) performing synchronized patterns of migration directly controlled by ambient light. Here, we present evidence for hitherto unknown complexity of Arctic marine systems, where zooplankton form multiple aggregations through the water column seen via acoustics as distinct SSLs. We show that while the initiation of DVM during the autumnal equinox is light mediated, the vertical positioning of the migrants during day is linked more to the thermal characteristics of water masses than to irradiance. During night, phytoplankton biomass is shown to be the most important factor determining the vertical positioning of all migrating taxa. Further, we develop a novel way of representing acoustic data in the form of a Sound Image (SI) that enables a direct comparison of the relative importance of each potential scatterer based upon the theoretical contribution of their backscatter. Based on our comparison of locations with contrasting hydrography, we conclude that a continued warming of the Arctic is likely to result in more complex ecotones across the Arctic marine system.

Turbulence and internal waves in Patricia Bay, Saanich Inlet, British Columbia

The physical environment in Patricia Bay of Saanich Inlet, British Columbia, is characterized. Turbulence and internal waves were measured over September 2010 using a moored Acoustic Doppler velocimeter and Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler, while diel vertical migration of zooplankton was recorded with an echosounder to test for possible biological generation of turbulence. The average turbulent dissipation rate 〈ϵ〉 was O(10−8Wkg−1) with the corresponding diapycnal eddy diffusivity K of ~5×10−6m2s−1. Barotropic velocities responded to forcing outside Saanich Inlet in the Strait of Georgia and Haro Strait. Subtidal baroclinic velocities were southward at the surface and northward at mid-depth during spring tides, the reverse during neaps. Mode-2 M4 frequency in cross-inlet velocity u was more energetic than any mode-1 diurnal or semidiurnal frequencies in both u and v, which may be a signature of cross-inlet seiches. Spectral energy levels of baroclinic velocities and shear were weakly correlated with ϵ. No relation was found between turbulent events and diel vertical migration.

Environmental forcing of the Campeche cold-water coral province, southern Gulf of Mexico

Abstract. With an extension of &gt; 40 km2 the recently discovered Campeche cold-water coral province located at the northeastern rim of the Campeche Bank in the southern Gulf of Mexico belongs to the largest coherent cold-water coral areas discovered so far. The Campeche province consists of numerous 20–40 m-high elongated coral mounds that are developed in intermediate water depths of 500 to 600 m. The mounds are colonized by a vivid cold-water coral ecosystem that covers the upper flanks and summits. The rich coral community is dominated by the framework-building Scleractinia Enallopsammia profunda and Lophelia pertusa, while the associated benthic megafauna shows a rather scarce occurrence. The recent environmental setting is characterized by a high surface water production caused by a local upwelling center and a dynamic bottom-water regime comprising vigorous bottom currents, obvious temporal variability, and strong density contrasts, which all together provide optimal conditions for the growth of cold-water corals. This setting – potentially supported by the diel vertical migration of zooplankton in the Campeche area – controls the delivering of food particles to the corals. The Campeche cold-water coral province is, thus, an excellent example highlighting the importance of the oceanographic setting in securing the food supply for the development of large and vivid cold-water coral ecosystems.

Effects of the proximal factors on the diel vertical migration of zooplankton in a plateau meso-eutrophic Lake Erhai, China

To study the proximal factors inducing diel vertical migration (DVM) in large and small zooplankton species in a plateau lake in China, we investigated the DVM of crustacean zooplankton in Lake Erhai bimonthly from November 2009 to September 2010. We hypothesized that the factors affecting DVM behaviour in different-sized zooplankton were different. A linear regression was used to assess the relationships between environmental variables and the vertical distribution of zooplankton. All crustacean zooplankton exhibited normal DVM patterns (down during the day, up at night) across sampling months. The weighted mean depth (WMD) of all zooplankton did not show a significant correlation with the WMD of the dominant phytoplankton and chlorophyll-a. However, a negative relationship was observed between the distribution of zooplankton and water temperature in January, March, and July 2010, but the relationship was relatively weak (R-2 between 0.1 and 0.4). The vertical distribution of zooplankton was primarily affected by water transparency (P0.05), whereas the factors inducing DVM behaviour differed between large and small zooplankton. Predation avoidance and phototactic behaviour may be the dominant factors influencing DVM of large species, whereas only phototaxis contributed to the migratory behaviour of small species.