Vertical Migration Of Zooplankton Research Articles

Daily Fluctuation of Planktons Abundance in Percut Sei Tuan Waters, Deli Serdang Regency, North Sumatera

Plankton is an aquatic biota that lives following the currents in the water. The life of plankton is highly dependent on the water quality in those aquatic environments. The constantly changing physical and chemical conditions of water lead to fluctuations in the abundance of plankton in a water. This study aims to analyze fluctuations in plankton abundance and its correlation with water quality in Percut Sei Tuan Waters. The study was conducted in February and March 2023. Filtration method at 3 stations is the Sampling technique used in this study. The sampling period is carried out in the morning, afternoon, and evening. Data analysis to determine the relationship between variables using Pearson correlation in SPSS version 26. Based on the research results, 42 genera of phytoplankton and 16 genera of zooplankton were found. The highest abundance of phytoplankton was 4.635 Ind/L during the afternoon. The highest abundance of zooplankton was obtained at evening, which was 1.049 Ind/L. This is due to the daily vertical migration of zooplankton and their negative phototactic behavior, while phytoplankton require light for photosynthesis. The research results indicate that the abundance of phytoplankton has a very strong correlation with temperature, light intensity, salinity, TSS, pH, DO, and Nitrate. The abundance of zooplankton is highly correlated with water flow velocity, light intensity, salinity, TSS, TDS, pH, DO, Nitrate, and Phosphate.

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Winter Diel Vertical Migration of Zooplankton and Nekton in the East China Shelf Seas Based on Multi‐Frequency Echosounder

AbstractThe diel vertical migration (DVM) of plankton and nekton plays an important role in the energy flow and material cycling of marine ecosystems. Especially in shelf seas, seasonal environmental variations may distinguish DVM characteristics in winter mixed water from summer pattern. Therefore, to investigate the patterns and influencing factors of winter DVM in East China Shelf Seas (ECSS), we carried out comprehensive research based on high‐resolution multi‐frequency acoustic data during the winter of 2019/2020. The results showed that: (a) acoustic and zooplankton sampling data can effectively capture the widely existence of winter DVM of different biological community in ECSS and their spatio‐temporal variabilities. (b) In East China Sea, the migration was mainly dominated by the Gas‐bearing class (GB), which had fast migration speed, compared to the Yellow Sea where the migration was dominated by the Fluid‐like class (FL). In addition, GB descends earlier than FL. (c) For large scale factors, during the full moon, the GB will aggregate deeper and the FL shallower, compared to the new moon, and regional temperature is an important factor affecting the distribution of organisms at meridional direction; for small scale processes, cold and warm currents and ocean fronts can also affect migration behavior. In the muddy area with full moon and spring tide, GB and FL show different inconsistent migration compared to normal relatively consistent pattern. These results will help us to better understand the physiological, ecological and environmental elements that control winter DVM, facilitating the management of ecosystem‐based fisheries resources.

Study on diel migration of zooplankton in the Arctic surrounding seas during summer season based on mathematical statistics

Marine zooplankton have diel vertical migration behavior and play a key role in the transport of surface organic compounds to the deep ocean, which is of great significance in studying marine climate change. In this research, the manual visual interpretation method was used to preprocess the biological backscattering intensity data of acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) during the eighth Arctic expedition. Results showed that the extracted vertical migration trajectory was in good agreement with the variation of backscattering intensity data. The amount of zooplankton in the Arctic Ocean is significantly lower than that in the North Pacific and the North Atlantic, and sea ice cover has a significant effect on the diel vertical migration of zooplankton. Characteristics of zooplankton distribution in the North Atlantic Ocean were analyzed based on mathematical statistical methods. The results also prove that the backscattering intensity of -90dB can distinguish scattering layer and water, and that of -78dB can distinguish general scatters and zooplankton. There are two significant concentrations of zooplankton in the Atlantic Ocean which were located at the surface and at depths of 350-450 m, respectively.

Light pollution of freshwater ecosystems: principles, ecological impacts and remedies.

Light pollution caused by artificial light at night (ALAN) is increasingly recognized as a major driver of global environmental change. Since emissions are rapidly growing in an urbanizing world and half of the human population lives close to a freshwater shoreline, rivers and lakes are ever more exposed to light pollution worldwide. However, although light conditions are critical to aquatic species, and freshwaters are biodiversity hotspots and vital to human well-being, only a small fraction of studies conducted on ALAN focus on these ecosystems. The effects of light pollution on freshwaters are broad and concern all levels of biodiversity. Experiments have demonstrated diverse behavioural and physiological responses of species, even at low light levels. Prominent examples are skyglow effects on diel vertical migration of zooplankton and the suppression of melatonin production in fish. However, responses vary widely among taxa, suggesting consequences for species distribution patterns, potential to create novel communities across ecosystem boundaries, and cascading effects on ecosystem functioning. Understanding, predicting and alleviating the ecological impacts of light pollution on freshwaters requires a solid consideration of the physical properties of light propagating in water and a multitude of biological responses. This knowledge is urgently needed to develop innovative lighting concepts, mitigation strategies and specifically targeted measures. This article is part of the theme issue 'Light pollution in complex ecological systems'.

A Preliminary Study of Suspended Matters Variation Associated with Hypoxia and Shoaling Internal Tides on the Continental Shelf of the Northern Andaman Sea

The northern Andaman Sea (AS) continental shelf is unique due to the diverse marine ecosystem and existences of both hypoxia and internal tides, but limited in situ observations restrict our understanding of the hydrographic dynamic process. Based on the turbidity, mean volumes of backscattering strength (MVBS), we qualitatively studied the mean distribution characteristics and temporal variation in suspended matters on the northern AS continental shelf and their relation to hypoxia and internal tides. The results of both MVBS and turbidity revealed that the suspended matters exhibited a three-layer vertical structure. The upper and lower layers exhibited high values, while the middle layer had low values. The upper boundary of the high-value region in the upper layer descended below the surface to a depth of 30 m after sunrise and returned to the surface after sunset, indicating a diel vertical migration of zooplankton and micronekton. Daytime migration depth was likely constrained by hypoxia’s upper boundary. In the lower layer, three MVBS enhancements and attenuations correlated with vertical upward and downward velocities, respectively, primarily driven by uplift or suppression. We proposed vertical velocity patterns resulted from internal bores, possibly triggered by shoaling semidiurnal internal tides.

Upward migration of calanoid copepods is driven by high food quality in surface waters in an alpine lake

Abstract The diel vertical migration of zooplankton includes downward migration to deep water during the day and upward migration to surface water at night. Diurnal downward migration has been well explained; zooplankton migration to surface water at night remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the reason of the nocturnal upward migration of the calanoid copepod Arctodiaptomus sp. In Lake Heihai, an alpine lake (elevation 4,090 m above sea level) without predators. Herein, we present the vertical profiles of the lake, including water temperature, chlorophyll a (Chl‐a), fatty acids, and astaxanthin synthesis precursors (ASPs) of seston in the water column. The distributions and concentrations of fatty acids and astaxanthin in Arctodiaptomus sp. were characterised through field investigations during the day and at night. Meanwhile, the effect of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) on ASPs in seston was explored through indoor experiments. Lake Heihai had the characteristics of low temperature, low food availability, high transparency, and high UVR intensity. Arctodiaptomus sp. was distributed in water layers below 6 m during the day and throughout the water column at night. Arctodiaptomus sp. accumulated large amounts of fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and inhibitors of fatty acid oxidation–astaxanthin in the cold alpine lake. The concentrations of lutein, a kind of ASP, and PUFAs in seston were highest in surface waters. The indoor experiment verified that UVR can enhance the synthesis of ASP. The calanoids migrated to surface waters at night to obtain ASPs and PUFAs in seston, which were at high concentrations in surface waters. PUFAs and ASP may be of high food quality for zooplankton in alpine lakes. The findings indicated that the upward migration of Arctodiaptomus sp. at night was driven by the high quality of food sources (PUFAs and ASP) in surface waters. Arctodiaptomus sp. adapts behaviour and physiology to the environment of the alpine lake. We explored why zooplankton migrated to surface waters at night from the perspective of their physiological characteristics and adaptability to the environment. Our findings provide a new way to investigate the diel vertical migration of zooplankton, especially in alpine lakes.

Complex pattern dynamics and synchronization in a coupled spatiotemporal plankton system with zooplankton vertical migration

In aquatic environments, zooplankton often exhibits life habit of vertical migration and the phytoplankton-zooplankton predator-prey systems in different water layers are therefore coupled together. To uncover the nonlinear mechanisms of pattern dynamics in such coupled plankton system, a spatiotemporal model is developed in this research with the consideration of plankton horizontal diffusion and zooplankton vertical migration. Equation of dispersion curve for the coupled system is derived, and an extension of regular Turing instability is disclosed by determining the number of peaks on the dispersion curve. We find a mechanism named as “projection of characteristics” that local or global characteristics projecting between different subsystems causes the self-organization of complex patterns with multi-scale structures. The combination of various bifurcations with Turing instability controls the system stability and can lead to more complex pattern formation. Notably, when flip bifurcation takes place, the coupled system generates an interesting result that the phytoplankton populations in some water layers become extinct but the zooplankton populations in these layers can still be persistent due to the effect of population compensation. It is also found that the increase of zooplankton migration rate can result to spatiotemporal synchronization of pattern evolution, and that particularly, the pattern dynamics in just a part of subsystems achieve local synchronization. The methods and results presented herein may lead to a better understanding on the emergence of complex plankton patchiness in nature.

Small particles and heterotrophic protists support the mesopelagic zooplankton food web in the subarctic northeast Pacific Ocean

AbstractA quantitative understanding of the mesopelagic zooplankton food web is key to development of accurate carbon budgets and geochemical models in marine systems. Here we use compound specific nitrogen stable isotope analysis of amino acids to quantify the trophic structure of the microzooplankton and mesozooplankton community during summer in the subarctic northeast Pacific Ocean during the EXport Processes in the Ocean from Remote Sensing (EXPORTS) field campaign. Source amino acid values in particles and zooplankton provide strong evidence that basal resources for the mesopelagic zooplankton food web were primarily small (), suspended or slow‐sinking particles, but that surface organic matter delivered by vertically migrating zooplankton may have also been important. Comparisons of values of source and trophic amino acids provide estimates of food web length, which decrease significantly with depth and suggest that protistan microzooplankton are key components of the food web from the surface to at least 500. These results emphasize the importance of small particles as a source of carbon and nitrogen to mesopelagic communities in this region, support observations of an inverse relationship between zooplankton vertical migration and small particles as sources of carbon to deep‐sea food webs in low productivity environments, and document the role of heterotrophic protists as key trophic intermediaries in the mesopelagic zone at this location.

Horizontal Heterogeneities of Functioning of Phyto- and Zooplankton in a Lake With Wind Currents

A hypothesis about the formation of horizontal heterogeneities of zooplankton and phytoplankton for the lake subjected to regular daily changes in wind currents has been tested. Formation of horizontal heterogeneities is based on a combination of low-amplitude vertical migration of zooplankton and epilimnion wind currents: surface currents, which bring water depleted in zooplankton to the downwind shore (in the direction in which the wind is blowing), and compensatory above-thermocline ones, which bring zooplankton-enriched water to the upwind shore (against the wind). The spatial separation of phytoplankton and zooplankton may result in the weakening of trophic links between these trophic levels. The hypothesis was tested in 2020 in the pelagic zone of Lake Shira (Khakassia, Russia), a brackish meromictic water body with simple bathymetry and a simple food web. The epilimnion horizontal heterogeneities were assessed using a survey across the lake by measuring biological and physical parameters with a submersible fluorimeter probe and a plankton net at 11 stations and recording the dynamics of wind speed and direction. Differences in the values of primary production, plankton destruction, and intensity of phytoplankton grazing by zooplankton near the downwind and upwind shores were estimated using the bottle method in 3 experiments. The experiments confirmed the expected differences in the functioning of the trophic cascade near the northeastern (more often upwind during the day and downwind at night) and south-southwestern (downwind during the day and upwind at night) shores. Namely, the concentration of chlorophyll a, the gross and net primary production of phytoplankton (estimated by bottle and fluorescent methods), and the daily intensity of zooplankton feeding (based on chlorophyll) were higher near the southern coast, while the biomass of net zooplankton and the respiration rate of the plankton community were higher near the northeastern shore, which coincided with the pattern of phyto- and zooplankton distribution over the lake according to the sampling data under similar weather conditions. The hypothesis was confirmed and supplemented by the data on the evening-night vertical migrations of zooplankton.

Active flux seasonality of the small dominant migratory crustaceans and mesopelagic fishes in the Gulf of California during June and October

The biological carbon pump is the process that transports carbon vertically out of the mixed layer in the ocean. Besides the sinking flux of organic particles, active flux due to the daily vertical migration of zooplankton and micronekton promotes a significant carbon transport not fully accounted for or understood in the world’s oceans. The diversity and abundance of epipelagic and mesopelagic species in the Gulf of California has been extensively studied, but the role of micronekton in carbon export has not yet been investigated. We studied the carbon flux promoted by juvenile and adult mesopelagic fishes and crustaceans (Decapoda and Euphausiidae) during the transition from the cold to warm period (June) and the onset of the warm season (October) in 2018. We provide the first estimation of migrant biomass and respiratory flux of the most abundant migratory species of mesopelagic fishes, decapods and euphausiids in the Gulf of California. The micronekton species collected accounted for a large biomass of mesopelagic fishes and pelagic crustaceans. The average migrant biomass estimates were 151.5 ± 101.2 mg C·m−2 during June and 90.9 ± 75.3 mg C·m−2 during October. The enzymatic activity of the electron transfer system (ETS) was measured as an estimate of their respiratory rates. Average specific ETS activity was significantly different between fishes and decapods, and between fishes and euphausiids (p < 0.05). The respiratory flux of fishes was predominant in the Gulf of California, followed by pelagic decapods and euphausiids. Seasonal changes in respiratory flux were observed for fishes (June: 6.1 ± 1.5 mg C·m−2·d−1; October: 3.2 ± 1.8 mg C·m−2·d−1) and decapods (June: 0.4 mg C·m−2·d−1; October: 0.7 ± 0.05 mg C·m−2·d−1). Respiratory flux estimation by crustaceans (decapods and euphausiids) and fishes together was 6.86 mg C·m−2·d−1 during June, and 4.21 mg C·m−2·d−1 during October 2018, suggesting a functional role of this large micronektonic fauna in the biological carbon export in this region.

Construction of the fitness function depending on a set of competing strategies based on the analysis of population dynamics

The purpose of this work is to construct a fitness function that depends on the set of coexisting competing hereditary elements based on population dynamics in the “predator– prey” model with the logistic growth of prey. Materials and methods. The work uses the generalized Volterra model. The planktivorous fish plays the role of a predator. Many different species of zooplankton are considered as prey, which differ from each other in the hereditary strategies of daily vertical migrations. The model takes into account the intraspecific competition of prey. The peculiarity of the model consists of the presence of pairs of hereditary strategies in which the carriers of the first can displace the carriers of the second and vice versa — the carriers of the second can displace the carriers of the first, depending on the set of competing strategies in which they coexist. To restore the fitness function, the ranking method is used, which is reduced to the classification of ordered pairs of hereditary strategies into two classes “the first strategy displaces the second” and “the second displaces the first”. Results. The article presents a new methodology for constructing the fitness function. The technique involves two stages. First, the fitness function is reconstructed for a certain finite subset of elements on the basis of processing data on the long-term dynamics and comparing their competitive advantages. At the second stage, the form of the fitness function is derived for an arbitrary set of elements. It uses the features of interspecies interaction reflected in the model. With the help of the constructed fitness function, an evolutionarily stable regime of daily vertical migrations of zooplankton is modeled by numerically solving the minimax problem. Conclusion. The proposed method for constructing a fitness function that depends on a set of competing strategies is quite general and can be applied to a wide range of models of population dynamics. The strategy of diel vertical migrations of zooplankton constructed as a result of modeling is in good agreement with empirical data.

Uncertain response of ocean biological carbon export in a changing world

The transfer of organic carbon from the upper to the deep ocean by particulate export flux is the starting point for the long-term storage of photosynthetically fixed carbon. This ‘biological carbon pump’ is a critical component of the global carbon cycle, reducing atmospheric CO2 levels by ~200 ppm relative to a world without export flux. This carbon flux also fuels the productivity of the mesopelagic zone, including important fisheries. Here we show that, despite its importance for understanding future ocean carbon cycling, Earth system models disagree on the projected response of the global export flux to climate change, with estimates ranging from −41% to +1.8%. Fundamental constraints to understanding export flux arise because a myriad of interconnected processes make the biological carbon pump challenging to both observe and model. Our synthesis prioritizes the processes likely to be most important to include in modern-day estimates (particle fragmentation and zooplankton vertical migration) and future projections (phytoplankton and particle size spectra and temperature-dependent remineralization) of export. We also identify the observations required to achieve more robust characterization, and hence improved model parameterization, of export flux and thus reduce uncertainties in current and future estimates in the overall cycling of carbon in the ocean. A synthesis of recent work on marine carbon export fluxes finds that many processes that are key to understanding the effects of a warming climate on ocean carbon cycling are missing from current climate models.

The Oceans’ Biological Carbon Pumps: Framework for a Research Observational Community Approach

A recent paradigm explains that the downward pumping of biogenic carbon in the ocean is performed by the combined action of six different biological carbon pumps (BCPs): the biological gravitational pump, the physically driven pumps (Mixed Layer Pump, Eddy Subduction Pump and Large-scale Subduction Pump), and the animal-driven pumps (diurnal and seasonal vertical migrations of zooplankton and larger animals). Here, we propose a research community approach to implement the new paradigm through the integrated study of these BCPs in the World Ocean. The framework to investigate the BCPs combines measurements from different observational platforms, i.e., oceanographic ships, satellites, moorings, and robots (gliders, floats, and robotic surface vehicles such as wavegliders and saildrones). We describe the following aspects of the proposed research framework: variables and processes to be measured in both the euphotic and twilight zones for the different BCPs; spatial and temporal scales of occurrence of the various BCPs; selection of key regions for integrated studies of the BCPs; multi-platform observational strategies; and upscaling of results from regional observations to the global ocean using deterministic models combined with data assimilation and machine learning to make the most of the wealth of unique measurements. The proposed approach has the potential not only to bring together a large multidisciplinary community of researchers, but also to usher the community toward a new era of discoveries in ocean sciences.

Seasonal variation in diel vertical migration of zooplankton and micronekton in the Andaman Sea observed by a moored ADCP

The diel vertical migration (DVM) behaviors of zooplankton and micronekton vary among species in response to diverse ambient conditions. Based on the observed mean volumes of backscattering strength (MVBS), we studied the mean features and seasonal variations of DVM in the Andaman Sea. Nocturnal-ascent DVM pattern prevailed throughout the observation period, with a mean downward (upward) migratory speed of 3.85 (3.81) cm/s. The DVM in this area exhibited a 3-layer vertical structure. Between the surface nighttime residence and the daytime residence below 300 m, there was a weak subsurface daytime residence probably formed by the assemblage of migrants avoiding aerobic predators. The variations in lower margin depth of surface nighttime residence and the upper margin depth of subsurface daytime residence were consistent with the variation in oxycline depth, which is closely related to thermocline variations. Compared with the premonsoon season, the MVBS was weaker, but the DVM was more active during the summer monsoon season, corresponding to the water clarity trend. Overall, equatorial Kelvin waves and monsoon winds presumably dominated the seasonal variations in DVM by modulating sea water properties such as oxygen concentration and transparency.

Diel metabolic patterns in a migratory oceanic copepod

Diel vertical migration of zooplankton profoundly impacts the transport of nutrients and carbon through the water column. Despite the acknowledged importance of this active flux to ocean biogeochemistry, these contributions remain poorly constrained, in part because daily variations in metabolic rates are not considered or are modeled as simple functions of temperature. To address this uncertainty, we sampled the subtropical copepod Pleuromamma xiphias at 4- to 7-h intervals throughout the daily migration and measured rates of oxygen consumption, ammonium excretion, fecal pellet production and metabolic enzyme activity. No significant patterns were detected in rates of oxygen consumption or ammonium excretion for freshly caught animals over the diel cycle. Fecal pellet production was highest during mid-night, consistent with several hours of feeding near the surface. Surface feeding resulted in fecal pellet production at depth in the morning, providing direct evidence that active flux of particulate organic carbon occurs in this region. Electron transport system activity was highest during the afternoon, contrary to our prediction of reduced daytime metabolism. Activity of both glutamate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase increased during early night, reflecting higher capacity for excretion and aerobic respiration, respectively. Overall, these results show that activities of metabolic enzymes vary during diel vertical migration. The surprising observation of elevated afternoon enzyme activity coupled with daytime fecal pellet and ammonium production suggests that additional characterization of the daytime activity of migratory zooplankton is warranted.

Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) in the Ligurian Sea: Preliminary Study on Acoustics Demonstrates Their Regular Occurrence in Autumn

The patterns of movement of the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758)) in the Mediterranean Sea are still a matter of debate. Feeding aggregations are well known in the Corso-Liguro-Provençal Basin from July to September, but little is known for the autumn and winter seasons. Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) was implemented in the Ligurian Sea to overcome this gap and to investigate the temporal and spatial variation of fin whale acoustic presence. From July to December 2011, five autonomous recorders were deployed at between 700 and 900 m depths. Fin whale calls were automatically detected almost every day, with higher vocalization rates in October, November, and December. Furthermore, daily vocalization rates were higher during light hours, and closer to the coast. These outcomes suggest that not all the individuals migrate, staying in the area also during autumn for feeding or breeding purposes. The dial cycle of vocalization might be related to feeding activities and zooplankton vertical migration, whereas the proximity to the coast can be explained by the morphology of the area that promotes the upwelling system. Although this work only represents a six-month period, certainly it suggests the need for a larger spatial and temporal PAM effort, crucial for species management and for mitigating possible impact of anthropogenic activities at the basin level.

Global optimisation in Hilbert spaces using the survival of the fittest algorithm

Global optimisation problems in high-dimensional and infinite-dimensional spaces arise in various real-world applications such as engineering, economics and finance, geophysics, biology, machine learning, optimal control, etc. Among stochastic approaches to global optimisation, biology-inspired methods are currently very popular in the literature. Bio-inspired approaches imitate natural ecological and evolutionary processes and are reported to be efficient in a large number of practical study cases. However, many bio-inspired methods can possess some vital drawbacks. For example, due to their semi-empirical nature, convergence to the globally optimal solution cannot always be guaranteed. Another major obstacle is that the existing methods often struggle with higher dimensionality of the space of parameters, which results in a slow convergence. Moreover, it is often difficult to adjust the dimensionality of the space of parameters in the corresponding computer code for a practical realisation of the optimisation method. Here, we present a bio-inspired global stochastic optimisation method applicable in Hilbert function spaces. The proposed method is an evolutionary algorithm inspired by the Darwin’s famous idea of survival of the fittest and is, therefore, referred to as the ‘Survival of the Fittest Algorithm’ (SoFA). Mathematically, the convergence of SoFA is a consequence of the fundamental property of localisation of probabilistic measure in a Hilbert space and we rigorously prove the convergence of the introduced algorithm for a generic class of functionals. The approach is simple in terms of practical coding. As an insightful, real-world problem, we apply our method to find the globally optimal trajectory for the daily vertical migration of zooplankton in the ocean and lakes, this phenomenon is considered to be the largest synchronised movement of biomass on Earth. We maximise fitness in a function space derived from a von-Foerster stage-structured population model with biologically realistic parameters. We show that for problems of fitness maximisation in high-dimensional spaces, SoFA provides better performance as compared to some other stochastic global optimisation algorithms. We highlight the links between the new optimisation algorithm and natural selection processes in ecosystems occurring within a population via gradual exclusion of competitive con-specific strains.

Underwater frazil ice and its suspension depth detected from ADCP backscatter data around sea ice edge in the Sea of Okhotsk

Small sea ice crystals, so-called frazil ice, are created during initial ice formation in the water column. Frazil ice can be suspended under turbulent conditions, and it can scavenge particulate matter through interaction with resuspended sediment. This study examined the suspension depth of frazil ice based on backscatter data from 150-kHz Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) moored in the pelagic regions east of Sakhalin Island in the Sea of Okhotsk with bottom depths from 800 to 1700 m during 1998–2000. ADCP backscatter strength revealed dominant signals from the diurnal vertical migration of zooplankton. In addition, the backscatter was enhanced by suspended frazil ice that extended down the water column from the surface. Frazil ice was detected several times at each mooring site during sea-ice seasons. These events occurred when the mooring sites were on the edge of the sea ice regions and the wind speed was high, typically exceeding 8 m/s. The estimated mean suspension depth of frazil ice was 35 m as long as valid ADCP backscatter data from depths greater than ~15 m were used. The maximum suspension depth reached ~100 m, which was much deeper than that previously reported in various sea-ice regions as frazil ice originating from the atmospheric heat absorption at the surface. These results suggest that frazil ice comes into contact with the bottom and scavenges seafloor sediment in shallower regions, resulting in incorporation of sediment-origin macronutrients into sea ice, which would play an important role in bio-related material cycle.

Exploring Evolutionary Fitness in Biological Systems Using Machine Learning Methods.

Here, we propose a computational approach to explore evolutionary fitness in complex biological systems based on empirical data using artificial neural networks. The essence of our approach is the following. We first introduce a ranking order of inherited elements (behavioral strategies or/and life history traits) in considered self-reproducing systems: we use available empirical information on selective advantages of such elements. Next, we introduce evolutionary fitness, which is formally described as a certain function reflecting the introduced ranking order. Then, we approximate fitness in the space of key parameters using a Taylor expansion. To estimate the coefficients in the Taylor expansion, we utilize artificial neural networks: we construct a surface to separate the domains of superior and interior ranking of pair inherited elements in the space of parameters. Finally, we use the obtained approximation of the fitness surface to find the evolutionarily stable (optimal) strategy which maximizes fitness. As an ecologically important study case, we apply our approach to explore the evolutionarily stable diel vertical migration of zooplankton in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Using machine learning we reconstruct the fitness function of herbivorous zooplankton from empirical data and predict the daily trajectory of a dominant species in the northeastern Black Sea.

Large deep-sea zooplankton biomass mirrors primary production in the global ocean

The biological pump transports organic carbon produced by photosynthesis to the meso- and bathypelagic zones, the latter removing carbon from exchanging with the atmosphere over centennial time scales. Organisms living in both zones are supported by a passive flux of particles, and carbon transported to the deep-sea through vertical zooplankton migrations. Here we report globally-coherent positive relationships between zooplankton biomass in the epi-, meso-, and bathypelagic layers and average net primary production (NPP). We do so based on a global assessment of available deep-sea zooplankton biomass data and large-scale estimates of average NPP. The relationships obtained imply that increased NPP leads to enhanced transference of organic carbon to the deep ocean. Estimated remineralization from respiration rates by deep-sea zooplankton requires a minimum supply of 0.44 Pg C y−1 transported into the bathypelagic ocean, comparable to the passive carbon sequestration. We suggest that the global coupling between NPP and bathypelagic zooplankton biomass must be also supported by an active transport mechanism associated to vertical zooplankton migration.