Vertical Gravity Gradient Research Articles

Madagascar's escape from Africa: A high‐resolution plate reconstruction for the Western Somali Basin and implications for supercontinent dispersal

AbstractAccurate reconstructions of the dispersal of supercontinent blocks are essential for testing continental breakup models. Here, we provide a new plate tectonic reconstruction of the opening of the Western Somali Basin during the breakup of East and West Gondwana. The model is constrained by a new comprehensive set of spreading lineaments, detected in this heavily sedimented basin using a novel technique based on directional derivatives of free‐air gravity anomalies. Vertical gravity gradient and free‐air gravity anomaly maps also enable the detection of extinct mid‐ocean ridge segments, which can be directly compared to several previous ocean magnetic anomaly interpretations of the Western Somali Basin. The best matching interpretations have basin symmetry around the M0 anomaly; these are then used to temporally constrain our plate tectonic reconstruction. The reconstruction supports a tight fit for Gondwana fragments prior to breakup, and predicts that the continent‐ocean transform margin lies along the Rovuma Basin, not along the Davie Fracture Zone (DFZ) as commonly thought. According to our reconstruction, the DFZ represents a major ocean‐ocean fracture zone formed by the coalescence of several smaller fracture zones during evolving plate motions as Madagascar drifted southwards, and offshore Tanzania is an obliquely rifted, rather than transform, margin. New seismic reflection evidence for oceanic crust inboard of the DFZ strongly supports these conclusions. Our results provide important new constraints on the still enigmatic driving mechanism of continental rifting, the nature of the lithosphere in the Western Somali Basin, and its resource potential.

Experimental determination of the vertical gravity gradient below the sea level

The experiment for determining the vertical gravity gradient on a self-contained submersible instrument in the high latitudes with the use of the Chekan AM gravimetric complex is described.

Prediction of vertical gradient of gravity and its significance for volcano monitoring – example from Teide volcano

Abstract We present a detailed calculation of the topographic contribution to the vertical gradient of gravity (VGG) based on high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) and new developed software (Toposk) for the purpose of predicting the actual VGGs in the field. The calculations presented here were performed for the Central Volcanic Complex (CVC) of Tenerife. We aimed at identifying the most extreme VGGs within the CVC, as well as predicting the VGGs at benchmarks of the former microgravity/deformation network set up to monitor the 2004/5 unrest. We have carried out an observational campaign in June 2016 to verify the predicted VGG values, both the extreme ones and those at the benchmarks. The comparison between the predicted and the in-situ verified VGGs is presented here. We demonstrate the sensitivity of the VGG prediction to the choice of the topo-rock density, which is inherent to the volcanic areas with high variability of rock densities. We illustrate the significance of the use of actual VGG in volcano monitoring microgravimetric surveys on a couple of benchmarks of the CVC network.

Analysis of the Illapel Mw = 8.3 Thrust Earthquake Rupture Zone Using GOCE-Derived Gradients

Satellite gravimetry has proven to be a useful tool to identify mass anomalies along a subduction interface, interpreted as heterogeneities related to the rupture process during megathrust earthquakes. In the last years, different works, reinforced with data derived from satellite gravity missions as GRACE and now GOCE, have analyzed not only the static component of the Earth gravity field, but also its temporal variations and relation to the seismic cycle.In particular, during the last decade, the Chilean margin has been affected by three megathrust earthquakes (withMw>8): Maule 2010 Mw = 8.8, Pisagua 2014 Mw = 8.2 and recently the Mw = 8.3 Illapel event. Then, the recently completed GOCE mission (November 2009 to November 2013) offered a unique opportunity to study the Maule February 2010 and Pisagua April 2014 events by means of gravity gradients, directly measured at satellite height altitudes, which allowed mapping density heterogeneities with greater detail than the gravity anomaly which has been used in most studies up to now. In the present work, we use the last GOCE model (GO_CONS_GCF_2_DIR_R5), the one of higher spatial resolution (N = 300, λ/2 ≈ 66 km) derived from satellite-only data. The methodology used is the same as that to study the previous events, with the addition that now we derived a relation between the associated depths of a causative mass with a determined degree of the spherical harmonic expansion. This allowed to ‘‘decompose’’ the gravimetric signal, by cutting off the degree/order of the harmonic expansion, as depth increases. From this analysis, we found that prominent oceanic features such as the Challenger fracture zone and the Juan Fernandez ridge played a key role in latitudinal seismic segmentation for the Illapel earthquake rupture zone, acting as barriers/attenuators to the seismic energy release. We compared the slip model from Tilmann et al. (Geophysical Research Letters 43: 574–583. doi: 10.1002/2015GL066963, 2016) for the Illapel earthquake with vertical gravity gradient with and without sediment correction, and at different degree/order of the harmonic expansion. From this analysis, we inferred that prominent oceanic features over the subducting Nazca plate play a key role in seismic segmentation not only at heavily sedimented trenches, but also at sediment-starved segments.

New analytic solutions for modeling vertical gravity gradient anomalies

Modern processing of satellite altimetry for use in marine gravimetry involves computing the along-track slopes of observed sea-surface heights, projecting them into east-west and north-south deflection of the vertical grids, and using Laplace's equation to algebraically obtain a grid of the vertical gravity gradient (VGG). The VGG grid is then integrated via overlapping, flat Earth Fourier transforms to yield a free-air anomaly grid. Because of this integration and associated edge effects, the VGG grid retains more short-wavelength information (e.g., fracture zone and seamount signatures) that is of particular importance for plate tectonic investigations. While modeling of gravity anomalies over arbitrary bodies has long been a standard undertaking, similar modeling of VGG anomalies over oceanic features is not commonplace yet. Here we derive analytic solutions for VGG anomalies over simple bodies and arbitrary 2-D and 3-D sources. We demonstrate their usability in determining mass excess and deficiency across the Mendocino fracture zone (a 2-D feature) and find the best bulk density estimate for Jasper seamount (a 3-D feature). The methodologies used herein are implemented in the Generic Mapping Tools, available from gmt.soest.hawaii.edu.

Subsurface structure of Teboursouk and El Krib plains (dome zone, northern Tunisia) by gravity analysis

Gravity data was used to investigate sub-surface structure of the Teboursouk and El Krib plains belonging to the dome zone in the Northwest of Tunisia. Analysis of the gravity data included the computation of the Bouguer anomaly, the horizontal and vertical gravity gradients, the upward continuations, Euler deconvolution and analytic signal of high-resolution. The Bouguer anomaly map (d = 2.4 g cm−3) has provided information on the variation of the underground density and shown contrasting anomalous zones. The treatments applied to the Bouguer anomaly map have detected new deep faults and provided details on their dips and depths (exceeding 1500 m per places).Statistical analysis of the gravity data filtering shows that the study area is divided by four major faults with NW–SE, NE–SW, E–W and N–S trends. These faults have contributed to the structuring of the area.The results provide confirmation of some faults already recognized or inferred from the previous structural studies, and specify their depths and dips. While large number of new faults that remained undetected until now, have been highlighted.

3D unconstrained and geologically constrained stochastic inversion of airborne vertical gravity gradient data

We present an inversion tool for airborne gravity gradient data that yields a 3D density model using stochastic methods i.e. cokriging and conditional simulation. This method uses geostatistical properties of the measured gravity gradient to estimate a 3D density model whose gravity response fits the measured gravity gradient anomaly. Linearity between gravity gradient data and density allows estimation of the model (density) covariance using observed data, i.e. we adjust iteratively the density covariance matrix by fitting experimental and theoretical gravity gradient covariance matrices. Inversion can be constrained by including densities known at some locations. In addition we can explore various reasonable solutions that honour both the estimated density covariance model and the gravity gradient data using geostatistical simulation.The proposed method is first tested with two synthetic datasets generated from a sharp-boundary model and a smooth stochastic model respectively. The results show the method to be capable of retrieving models compatible with the true models; it also allows the integration of complex a priori information. The technique is then applied to gravity gradient survey data collected for the Geological Survey of Canada in the area of McFaulds Lake (Ontario, Canada) using the Falcon airborne gravity system. Unconstrained inversion returns a density model that is geologically plausible and the computed response exactly fits the observed gravity gradient anomaly.

Results from SGL’s AIRGrav airborne gravity system over the Kauring airborne gravity test site

SUMMARY A Sander Geophysics AIRGrav airborne gravity system was flown over Geoscience Australia's Kauring airborne gravity test site. Comparisons with both Geoscience Australia ground data and airborne gravity gradiometer data acquired by CGG using the Falcon system are presented. A series of band pass filters of the vertical gravity and vertical gravity gradient are employed to highlight performance at different wavelengths. While the Falcon system is best suited to the shortest wavelengths present at the Kauring test site, the AIRGrav system is also able to resolve relatively short wavelength features. This is due to noise reduction through the oversampling present with tight line spacing, combined with the unique characteristics of the AIRGrav system. Additional results with wider line spacing more commonly employed in airborne gravity surveys are shown using data acquired over both the Kauring test site and Papua New Guinea.

3D geophysical model of the Glyde Basin, Northern Territory, based on curvatures derived from airborne gravity gradient data

SUMMARY This paper presents automatic 3D geophysical model generation based on equivalent pseudodepth slicing of the shape index of the equipotential surfaces derived from airborne gravity gradient data. The method is carried out in three steps. First, the pseudodepth slices of the vertical gravity gradient and the magnitude of the differential curvature components are generated. Second, the equivalent pseudodepth slices of the shape index are generated. Finally, 3D interpolation is carried out to obtain the final model. The method is applied to FALCON airborne gravity gradiometer data from the Glyde Basin, Northern Territory and compared to an independently interpreted, integrated 3D geological Earth model.

Oceanic microplate formation records the onset of India–Eurasia collision

Mapping of seafloor tectonic fabric in the Indian Ocean, using high-resolution satellite-derived vertical gravity gradient data, reveals an extinct Pacific-style oceanic microplate (‘Mammerickx Microplate’) west of the Ninetyeast Ridge. It is one of the first Pacific-style microplates to be mapped outside the Pacific basin, suggesting that geophysical conditions during formation probably resembled those that have dominated at eastern Pacific ridges. The microplate formed at the Indian–Antarctic ridge and is bordered by an extinct ridge in the north and pseudofault in the south, whose conjugate is located north of the Kerguelen Plateau. Independent microplate rotation is indicated by asymmetric pseudofaults and rotated abyssal hill fabric, also seen in multibeam data. Magnetic anomaly picks and age estimates calculated from published spreading rates suggest formation during chron 21o (∼47.3 Ma). Plate reorganizations can trigger ridge propagation and microplate development, and we propose that Mammerickx Microplate formation is linked with the India–Eurasia collision (initial ‘soft’ collision). The collision altered the stress regime at the Indian–Antarctic ridge, leading to a change in segmentation and ridge propagation from an establishing transform. Fast Indian–Antarctic spreading that preceded microplate formation, and Kerguelen Plume activity, may have facilitated ridge propagation via the production of thin and weak lithosphere; however both factors had been present for tens of millions of years and are therefore unlikely to have triggered the event. Prior to the collision, the combination of fast spreading and plume activity was responsible for the production of a wide region of undulate seafloor to the north of the extinct ridge and ‘W’ shaped lineations that record back and forth ridge propagation. Microplate formation provides a precise means of dating the onset of the India–Eurasia collision, and is completely independent of and complementary to timing constraints derived from continental geology or convergence histories.

Gradients from GOCE reveal gravity changes before Pisagua Mw = 8.2 and Iquique Mw = 7.7 large megathrust earthquakes

Considerable improvements in the measurement of the Earth gravity field from GOCE satellite mission have provided global gravity field models with homogeneous coverage, high precision and good spatial resolution. In particular, the vertical gravity gradient (Tzz), in comparison to the classic Bouguer anomaly, defines more accurately superficial mass heterogeneities. Moreover, the correction of these satellite-derived data from the effect of Earth topographic masses by means of new techniques taking into account the Earth curvature, improves results in regional analyses. In a recent work we found a correlation between Tzz and slip distribution for the 2010 Maule Mw = 8.8 earthquake. In the present work, we derive the vertical gravity gradient from the last GOCE only model, corrected by the topographic effect and also by the sediments on depocenters of the offshore region at the Peru–Chile margin, in order to study a spatial relationship between different lobes of the gravity derived signal and the seismic sources of large megathrust earthquakes. In particular, we analyze this relation for the slip models of the 1996 Mw = 7.7 Nazca, 2001 Mw = 8.4 Arequipa, 2007 Mw = 8.0 Pisco events and for the slip models of the 2014 Mw = 8.2 Pisagua and Mw = 7.7 Iquique earthquakes from Schurr et al. (2014), including the previously analyzed 2010 Mw = 8.8 Maule event. Then we find a good correlation between vertical gravity gradients and main rupture zones, correlation that becomes even stronger as the event magnitude increases. Besides this, a gravity fall in the gravity gradient was noticed over the area of the main slip patches at least for the two years before 2014 Mw = 8.2 Pisagua and Mw = 7.7 Iquique earthquakes. Additionally, we found temporal variations of the gravity field after 2010 Mw = 8.8 Maule event, related to the main patches of the slip distribution, and coseismic deformation. Therefore, we analyzed vertical gravity gradient field variations as an indirect measure of the variable seismic coupling finding a potential relationship between Tzz and the seismic b-value. These relationships exemplify the strong potential of the satellite only derived models as a predictive tool to determine potential seismic energy released in a subduction segment, determining the potential size of a potential rupture zone, and in particular internal slip distribution that allows inferring coseismic displacement field at surface.

Towards the measurement of zero vertical gradient of gravity on the Earth’s surface

It is well known that the vertical gradient of gravity measured on the Earth’s surface depends strongly on nearby topographical shapes. We simply inverted the problem and posed the question whether a zero vertical gradient can be observed using relative gravity meters and the classical tower method of measurement in appropriate terrain conditions. Extensively using the model of a vertical cone to simulate the real in-field conditions, we have found that reversed-cone-shaped topographic depressions represent the most perspective forms, which can contribute to extremely small values of the resulting vertical gradient. In one such form, namely a karstic sinkhole, we measured the value of −0.071 mGal/m (10−5 s−2). In addition, we successfully modeled this value using a detailed local digital elevation model. We thus conclude that zero vertical gradient of gravity should be observable by common means, also on the Earth’s surface, and not only underground within very dense rocks as some ores can be. Once this is verified it could represent a contribution to the theory of the Earth’s gravity field and its geophysical as well as geodetic applications.

Using ground gravity to improve ice mass change estimation from GOCE gravity gradients in mid-west Greenland

Vertical gravity gradient anomalies from the Gravity and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) DIR-3 model have been used to determine gravity anomalies in mid-west Greenland by using Least-Squares Collocation (LSC) and the Reduced Point Mass (RPM) method. The two methods give nearly identical results. However, compared to LSC, the RPM method needs less computational time as the number of equations to be solved in LSC equals the number of observations. The advantage of the LSC, however, is the acquired error estimates. The observation periods are winter 2009 and summer 2012. In order to enhance the accuracy of the calculated gravity anomalies, ground gravity data from West Greenland is used over locations where the gravity change resulting from ice mass changes is negligible, i.e. over solid rock. In the period considered, the gravity anomaly change due to changes in ice mass varies from −5 mGal to 4 mGal. It is negative over the outlet glacier Jacobshavn Isbrae, where the mass loss corresponds to a gravity change of approximately −4 mGal. When using only GOCE vertical gravity gradients, the error estimates range from 5 mGal at the coast to 17 mGal over the ice sheet. Introducing the ground gravity data from West Greenland in the prediction reduces the errors to range from 2 to 10 mGal.

New evidence about the subduction of the Copiapó ridge beneath South America, and its connection with the Chilean-Pampean flat slab, tracked by satellite GOCE and EGM2008 models

Satellite-only gravity measurements and those integrated with terrestrial observations provide global gravity field models of unprecedented precision and spatial resolution, allowing the analysis of the lithospheric structure. We used the model EGM2008 (Earth Gravitational Model) to calculate the gravity anomaly and the vertical gravity gradient in the South Central Andes region, correcting these quantities by the topographic effect. Both quantities show a spatial relationship between the projected subduction of the Copiapó aseismic ridge (located at about 27°–30°S), its potential deformational effects in the overriding plate, and the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura volcanic lineament. This volcanic lineament constitutes a projection of the volcanic arc toward the retroarc zone, whose origin and development were not clearly understood. The analysis of the gravity anomalies, at the extrapolated zone of the Copiapó ridge beneath the continent, shows a change in the general NNE-trend of the Andean structures to an ENE-direction coincident with the area of the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura volcanic lineament. This anomalous pattern over the upper plate is interpreted to be linked with the subduction of the Copiapó ridge.We explore the relation between deformational effects and volcanism at the northern Chilean-Pampean flat slab and the collision of the Copiapó ridge, on the basis of the Moho geometry and elastic thicknesses calculated from the new satellite GOCE data. Neotectonic deformations interpreted in previous works associated with volcanic eruptions along the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura volcanic lineament is interpreted as caused by crustal doming, imprinted by the subduction of the Copiapó ridge, evidenced by crustal thickening at the sites of ridge inception along the trench.Finally, we propose that the Copiapó ridge could have controlled the northern edge of the Chilean-Pampean flat slab, due to higher buoyancy, similarly to the control that the Juan Fernandez ridge exerts in the geometry of the flat slab further south.

Three-dimensional estimate of the lithospheric effective elastic thickness of the Line ridge

Using a new bathymetry grid formed with vertical gravity gradient anomalies and ship soundings (BAT_VGG), a 1°×1° lithospheric effective elastic thickness (Te) grid of the Line ridge was calculated with the moving window admittance technique. As a comparison, both the GEBCO_08 and SIO V15.1 bathymetry datasets were used to calculate Te as well. The results show that BAT_VGG is suitable for the calculation of lithospheric effective elastic thickness. The lithospheric effective elastic thickness of the Line ridge is shown to be low, in the range of 5.5–13km, with an average of 8km and a standard deviation of 1.3km. Using the plate cooling model as a reference, most of the effective elastic thicknesses are controlled by the 150–300°C isotherm. Seamounts are primarily present in two zones, with lithospheric ages of 20–35Ma and 40–60Ma, at the time of loading. Unlike the Hawaiian-Emperor chain, the lithospheric effective elastic thickness of the Line ridge does not change monotonously. The tectonic setting of the Line ridge is discussed in detail based on our Te results and the seamount ages collected from the literature. The results show that thermal and fracture activities must have played an important role in the origin and evolution of the ridge.

Deformation induced topographic effects in inversion of temporal gravity changes: First look at Free Air and Bouguer terms

Abstract We review here the gravitational effects on the temporal (time-lapse) gravity changes induced by the surface deformation (vertical displacements). We focus on two terms, one induced by the displacement of the benchmark (gravity station) in the ambient gravity field, and the other imposed by the attraction of the masses within the topographic deformation rind. The first term, coined often the Free Air Effect (FAE), is the product of the vertical gradient of gravity (VGG) and the vertical displacement of the benchmark. We examine the use of the vertical gradient of normal gravity, typically called the theoretical or normal Free Air Gradient (normal FAG), as a replacement for the true VGG in the FAE, as well as the contribution of the topography to the VGG. We compute a topographic correction to the normal FAG, to offer a better approximation of the VGG, and evaluate its size and shape (spatial behavior) for a volcanic study area selected as the Central Volcanic Complex (CVC) on Tenerife, where this correction reaches 77% of the normal FAG and varies rapidly with terrain. The second term, imposed by the attraction of the vertically displaced topo-masses, referred to here as the Topographic Deformation Effect (TDE) must be computed by numerical evaluation of the Newton volumetric integral. As the effect wanes off quickly with distance, a high resolution DEM is required for its evaluation. In practice this effect is often approximated by the planar or spherical Bouguer deformation effect (BDE). By a synthetic simulation at the CVC of Tenerife we show the difference between the rigorously evaluated TDE and its approximation by the planar BDE. The complete effect, coined here the Deformation Induced Topographic Effect (DITE) is the sum of FAE and TDE. Next we compare by means of synthetic simulations the DITE with two approximations of DITE typically used in practice: one amounting only to the first term in which the VGG is approximated by normal FAG, the other adopting a Bouguer corrected normal FAG (BCFAG).

High precision vertical gravity gradient determination in Croatia

The paper depicts high precision vertical gravity gradient determination for the purpose of height reduction in order to connect absolute gravity determinations and high precision relative gravity measurements. Measurements were performed with two Scintrex Autograv CG-3M gravity meters at two absolute gravity stations. Measurement procedure was chosen to reduce influence of hysteresis effect and instrumental noise. Investigation on adjustment model best describing the measurements and their stochastic properties has been carried out, as well as investigations on number of measurements and number of readings influence on estimated vertical gravity gradient precision. On the basis of experimental measurements, it was found expedient to incorporate quadratic daily drift into a functional model. Mathematical correlation of subsequent measurements can then be taken into account by stochastic model. However, if daily drift is modelled as a linear function, better results are accomplished if no correlation is taken into account. Furthermore, measurement of the gravity difference between two levels in 7 iterations (4 observations at each level) by two gravity meters was found sufficient for high precision vertical gravity gradient determination. Moreover, measurement in 6 iterations or conducting more than 10 readings in each observation series does not provide significantly different results. Vertical gradients were determined with standard deviations from 3 to 6 nms−2/m, which allow conversion between reference heights of absolute and relative gravity measurements with precision better than 0.01 μms−2.

Absolute gravity measurements at three sites characterized by different environmental conditions using two portable ballistic gravimeters

The performances of two absolute gravimeters at three different sites in Italy between 2009 and 2011 is presented. The measurements of the gravity acceleration g were performed using the absolute gravimeters Micro-g LaCoste FG5#238 and the INRiM prototype IMGC-02, which represent the state of the art in ballistic gravimeter technology (relative uncertainty of a few parts in 109). For the comparison, the measured g values were reported at the same height by means of the vertical gravity gradient estimated at each site with relative gravimeters. The consistency and reliability of the gravity observations, as well as the performance and efficiency of the instruments, were assessed by measurements made in sites characterized by different logistics and environmental conditions. Furthermore, the various factors affecting the measurements and their uncertainty were thoroughly investigated. The measurements showed good agreement, with the minimum and maximum differences being 4.0 and 8.3 μGal. The normalized errors are very much lower than 1, ranging between 0.06 and 0.45, confirming the compatibility between the results. This excellent agreement can be attributed to several factors, including the good working order of gravimeters and the correct setup and use of the instruments in different conditions. These results can contribute to the standardization of absolute gravity surveys largely for applications in geophysics, volcanology and other branches of geosciences, allowing achieving a good trade-off between uncertainty and efficiency of gravity measurements.

Curvature of a geometric surface and curvature of gravity and magnetic anomalies

Curvature describes how much a line deviates from being straight or a surface from being flat. When curvature is used to interpret gravity and magnetic anomalies, we try to delineate geometric information of subsurface structures from an observed nongeometric quantity. In this work, I evaluated curvature attributes of the equipotential surface as functions of gravity gradients and analyzed the differences between the theoretical derivation and a practical application. I computed curvature of a synthetic model that consisted of representative structures (ridge, valley, basin, dome, and vertical cylinder) and curvature of the equipotential surface, gravity, and vertical gravity gradient (which is equivalent to the magnetic reduction-to-the-pole result) due to the same model. A comparison of curvature of such a geometric surface and curvature of different gravity quantities was then made to help understand these curvature differences and an indirect link between curvature of gravity data and actual structures. Finally, I applied curvature analysis to a magnetic anomaly grid in the Gaspé belt of Quebec, Canada, to illustrate its useful property of enhancing subtle features.

A Determination of the Local Acceleration of Gravity for the NIST-4 Watt Balance

A new watt balance is being constructed at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in preparation for the redefinition of the International System of Units and the realization of mass through an exact value of the Planck constant. The total relative uncertainty goal for this instrument of a few parts in $10^{8}$ requires that the local acceleration due to gravity be known at the location of a test mass with a relative uncertainty on the order of only a few parts in $10^{9}$. To make this determination, both the horizontal and vertical gradients of gravity must be known such that gravity may be tied from an absolute reference in the laboratory to the precise mass location. We describe the procedures used to model and measure gravity variations throughout the laboratory and give our results.