Verbal Redundancy Research Articles

Multimedia Design for Learning: An Overview of Reviews With Meta-Meta-Analysis

Multimedia is ubiquitous in 21st-century education. Cognitive load theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning both postulate that the quality of multimedia design heavily influences learning. We sought to identify how to best design multimedia and review how well those learning theories held up to meta-analyses. We conducted an overview of systematic reviews that tested the effects of multimedia design on learning or cognitive load. We found 29 reviews including 1,189 studies and 78,177 participants. We found 11 design principles that demonstrated significant, positive, meta-analytic effects on learning and five that significantly improved management of cognitive load. The largest benefits were for captioning second-language videos, temporal/spatial contiguity, and signaling. We also found robust evidence for modality, animation, coherence/removing seductive details, anthropomorphics, segmentation, personalization, pedagogical agents, and verbal redundancy effects. Good design was more important for more complex materials, and in system-paced environments (e.g., lectures) than self-paced ones (e.g., websites). Results supported many tenets of both theories. We highlight a range of evidence-based strategies that could be implemented by educators.

Verbal redundancy in a procedural animation: On-screen labels improve retention but not behavioral performance

Multimedia learning research has shown that presenting the same words as spoken text and as written text to accompany graphical information hinders learning (i.e., redundancy effect). However, recent work showed that a “condensed” form of written text (i.e., on-screen labels) that overlaps with the spoken text, and thus is only partially redundant, can actually foster learning. This study extends this line of research by focusing on the usefulness of on-screen labels in an animation explaining a procedural task (i.e., first-aid procedure). The experiment had a 2 × 2 × 2 between-subject design (N = 129) with the factors spoken text (yes vs. no), written text (yes vs. no), and on-screen labels (yes vs. no). Learning outcomes were measured as retention accuracy and behavioral performance accuracy. Results showed that on-screen labels improved retention accuracy (but not behavioral performance accuracy) of the procedure, especially when presented together with spoken text. So, on-screen labels appear to be promising for learning from procedural animations.

Partial Verbal Redundancy in Multimedia Presentations for Writing Strategy Instruction

SummaryMultimedia instructional materials require learners to select, organize, and integrate information across multiple modalities. To facilitate these comprehension processes, a variety of multimedia design principles have been proposed. This study further explores the redundancy principle by manipulating the degree of partial redundancy between written and narrated content. Ninety high school students learned about cohesion via animated lesson videos from the Writing Pal intelligent tutoring system. Videos were crafted such that narrated and onscreen written content overlapped by 10%, 26%, or 50%. Across conditions, students gained significantly in their knowledge of cohesion‐building strategies and the effects of cohesion on writing quality. However, degree of redundancy did not influence learning gains. Additionally, although more‐skilled readers outperformed less‐skilled readers, reading skill did not interact with the degree of redundancy. These results provide evidence that a broad range of partially redundant multimedia materials may be viable instructional tools that benefit diverse learners. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Impact de la redondance verbale et du contrôle du document pendant l’apprentissage multimédia

We analyzed the effects of redundancy arising from the duplication of spoken information in writing during the learning of a multimedia document, and sought to determine whether these effects persist when students can control the pace of presentation. In line with our hypotheses, results showed that verbal redundancy resulted in poorer performances. However, this effect was limited to the quality of diagram completion and did not show up either in a recall task or in a transfer task. The students who were able to peruse the document at their own pace spent far longer processing it, especially in the verbal redundancy condition, but there was no attendant improvement in learning. Contrary to our hypotheses, the negative impact of redundancy on diagram completion did not disappear in the pacing condition. We discuss these results in terms of strategies for compensating for the processing difficulties that arise from having to divide attention between multiple visual sources in a redundancy condition.

Verbal Redundancy Aids Memory for Filmed Entertainment Dialogue

ABSTRACT Three studies investigated the effects of presentation modality and redundancy of verbal content on recognition memory for entertainment film dialogue. U.S. participants watched two brief movie clips and afterward answered multiple-choice questions about information from the dialogue. Experiment 1 compared recognition memory for spoken dialogue in the native language (English) with subtitles in English, French, or no subtitles. Experiment 2 compared memory for material in English subtitles with spoken dialogue in English, French, or no sound. Experiment 3 examined three control conditions with no spoken or captioned material in the native language. All participants watched the same video clips and answered the same questions. Performance was consistently good whenever English dialogue appeared in either the subtitles or sound, and best of all when it appeared in both, supporting the facilitation of verbal redundancy. Performance was also better when English was only in the subtitles than when it was only spoken. Unexpectedly, sound or subtitles in an unfamiliar language (French) modestly improved performance, as long as there was also a familiar channel. Results extend multimedia research on verbal redundancy for expository material to verbal information in entertainment media.

Combining Best-Practice and Experimental Approaches: Redundancy, Images, and Misperceptions in Multimedia Learning

This experiment combined controlled experimental design with a best-practice approach (i.e., real course content, subjective evaluations) to clarify the role of verbal redundancy, confirm the multimodal impact of images and narration, and highlight discrepancies between actual and perceived understanding. The authors presented 1 of 3 computer-based lecture conditions: audio, redundant (audio with redundant text), or complementary (audio with nonredundant text and images). Audio and redundant conditions produced similar actual understanding, whereas the complementary condition produced greatest actual understanding. Redundant condition learners perceived their understanding as greater than their actual understanding. Findings encourage multimedia research to balance controlled experiments with a best-practice approach to better understand effective multimedia design.

Reducing verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: An undesired desirable difficulty?

Previous research on the redundancy principle in multimedia learning has shown that although exact correspondence between on-screen text and narration generally impairs learning, brief labels within an animation can improve learning. To clarify and extend the theoretical and practical implications of these results, the authors of the present research examined the extent to which varying degrees of correspondence between on-screen text and narration in a multimedia lesson affects recall and transfer. In 2 experiments, college students viewed an animated and narrated PowerPoint lesson about the life cycle of a star, with different participants experiencing different degrees of correspondence between on-screen text and narration. Consistent with the redundancy principle and the dual-channel theory of multimedia learning, both experiments demonstrated impairment for on-screen text identical to the narration. As an extension of previous research on the redundancy principle, however, both experiments also demonstrated an advantage for a small amount of discrepancy between narration and on-screen text. On the other hand, too much discrepancy resulted in learning just as poor as when the on-screen text was identical to the narration. Metacognitive judgments revealed that participants tended to prefer on-screen text identical to the narration, even though recall and transfer scores showed that on-screen text worded slightly differently than the narration was better for learning. Results indicate that despite learner preferences to the contrary, slight discrepancies between on-screen text and narration can be a desirable difficulty, suggesting an extension to the redundancy principle that is consistent with the desirable difficulties framework as well as the cognitive theory of multimedia learning.

Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning environments: A meta-analysis.

Verbal redundancy arises from the concurrent presentation of text and verbatim speech. To inform theories of multimedia learning that guide the design of educational materials, a meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the effects of spoken-only, written-only, and spoken--written presentations on learning retention and transfer. After an extensive search for experimental studies meeting specified inclusion criteria, data from 57 independent studies were extracted. Most of the research participants were postsecondary students. Overall, this meta-analysis revealed that outcomes comparing spoken--written and written-only presentations did not differ, but students who learned from spoken--written presentations outperformed those who learned from spoken-only presentations. This effect was dependent on learners' prior knowledge, pacing of presentation, and inclusion of animation or diagrams. Specifically, the advantages of spoken--written presentations over spoken-only presentations were found for low prior knowledge learners, system-paced learning materials, and picture-free materials. In comparison with verbatim, spoken--written presentations, presentations displaying key terms extracted from spoken narrations were associated with better learning outcomes and accounted for much of the advantage of spoken--written over spoken-only presentations. These findings have significant implications for the design of multimedia materials.

Effects of information transiency in multimedia learning

Multimedia presentations often transform permanent information into a transient format. For example, written text is often transformed into spoken (narrated) text and static graphics is transformed into dynamic forms such as animations or simulations. Transient information may overwhelm limited processing capacity of working memory and inhibit learning. The paper reviews recent empirical studies in modality and verbal redundancy effects within a cognitive load framework and outlines conditions under which negative effects of transiency may occur. Transiency of presented information may also explain failures to consistently demonstrate benefits of animations over static graphics. The paper concludes with instructional implications of these findings.

A computer laboratory program in engineering mathematics to enhance mathematical conceptualisation

This article describes a laboratory supplementary program that was integrated into a traditional mining engineering mathematics unit. The practical classes consisted of computer investigations designed to help develop mathematical concepts. The program described here was mainly web based and did not directly rely on a computer algebra system for its implementation. An evaluation of the program is included. References S. Cunningham. The visualization environment for mathematics education. In Visualization in Teaching and Learning Mathematics , ed. W. Zimmermann and S. Cunningham, 67--76. USA, Mathematical Association of America, 1991. A. Franco, P. Franco, A. Garcia, F. Garcia, F. J.Gonzalez, S. Hoya, G. Rodriguez, and A. de la Villa. Learning calculus of several variables with new technologies. The International Journal of Computer Algebra in Mathematics Education , 7 (4), 295--309, 2000. B. E. Garner and L. E. Garner. Retention of concepts and skills in traditional and reformed applied calculus. Mathematics Education Research Journal , 13 (3), 165--184, 2001 S. Habre. Visualization enhanced by technology in the learning of multivariate calculus. The International Journal of Computer Algebra in Mathematics Education , 8 (2), 115--130, 2001. B. H. Hallet. Visualization and calculus reform. In Visualization in Teaching and learning Mathematics , ed. W. Zimmermann and S. Cunningham, 121--126, 1991. USA, Mathematical Association of America F. Marton and R. Saljo. Approaches to learning. In eds. F. Marton, D. Hounsell and N. Entwistle, The Experience of Learning , 36--55, 1984. Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh. R. Moreno and R. Mayer. Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning; When reading helps listening. Journal of Educational Psychology , 94 (1), 153--163, 2002. L. D. Murphy. Computer algebra systems in calculus reform, MSTE, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1999. http://mste.illinois.edu/users/Murphy/Papers/CalcReformPaper.html M. Pemberton. Integrating web-based maple with a first year calculus and linear algebra course. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Teaching of Mathematics , Hersonissos, Greece, July 2002. http://www.math.uoc.gr/ ictm2/Proceedings/pap316.pdf R. Pierce and K. Stacey. Observations on students' responses to learning in a cas environment. Mathematics Education Research Journal , 13 (1), 28--46, 2001. M. D. Roblyer. Integrating Educational Technology Into Teaching (4th Ed.), 2006. Pearson, New Jersey, USA. J. Stewart. Calculus (5th Ed.), 2003. Brooks/Cole, Belmont, USA. E. J. Tonkes, B. I. Loch and A. W. Stace. An innovative learning model for computation in first year mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology , 36 (7), 751--759, 2005. L. M. Villarreal. A step in the positive direction: Integrating a computer laboratory component into developmental algebra courses. Mathematics and Computer Education , 37 (1), 72--78, 2003. S. Vinner. The pseudo-conceptual and the pseudo-analytical thought processes in mathematics learning. Educational Studies in Mathematics , 34 (2), 97--129, 1997. P. Vlachos and A.K. Kehagias. A computer algebra system and a new approach for teaching business calculus. The International Journal of Computer Algebra in Mathematics Education . 7 (2), 87--104, 2000.

The effects of time-compressed audio and verbal redundancy on learner performance and satisfaction

Digital audio is becoming increasingly popular in higher education with faculty digitally recording and broadcasting lectures for students to learn-on-demand. Students have discovered accelerated playback features in popular computer software and use it to reduce the amount of time spent listening to audio-enhanced instruction. In the current study, 183 undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of three audio-enhanced multimedia presentations that were recorded at three speeds (1.0, 1.4, and 1.8). Results show no significant difference on performance across treatments and a significant difference on satisfaction in favor of 1.4 times the normal audio speed. The results also indicate statistical differences in favor of verbal redundancy, in which the same verbal information was presented on both an auditory and visual channel.

Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: When reading helps listening.

Three studies investigated whether and under what conditions the addition of on-screen text would facilitate the learning of a narrated scientific multimedia explanation. Students were presented with an explanation about the process of lightning formation in the auditory alone (nonredundant) or auditory and visual (redundant) modalities. In Experiment 1, the effects of preceding the nonredundant or redundant explanation with a corresponding animation were examined. In Experiment 2, the effects of presenting the nonredundant or redundant explanation with a simultaneous or a preceding animation were compared. In Experiment 3, environmental sounds were added to the nonredundant or redundant explanation. Learning was measured by retention, transfer, and matching tests. Students better comprehended the explanation when the words were presented auditorily and visually rather than auditorily only, provided there was no other concurrent visual material. The overall pattern of results can be explained by a dual-processing model of working memory, which has implications for the design of multimedia instruction.

Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: When reading helps listening.

Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: When reading helps listening.

The development of referential communication skills: Some situations in which speakers give redundant messages

Although theorists disagree as to the source of young children's communicative deficits, there is general agreement about there being a developmental increase in the production of informative communications. However, researchers typically have not studied different types of informative messages but have treated what is a category of message types as if it were one type. The problems in doing this become apparent when one considers research on listening skills which indicates that different types of informative messages are effective in different situations. Comparable findings might occur with speaking skills. That is, speakers might vary the type of informative message to be congruent with situational demands. These two studies investigated developmental and contextual changes in the production of redundant messages (including more than the minimal necessary to be informative) a type often used by speakers. First-and fifth-graders in Experiment I described one of several groups of pictures so that a fictitious peer listener would be able to select it. Of interest were the type of redundancy used and whether usage differed as a function of various task factors known to affect listening performance. The data indicated that fifth-graders, but not first-graders, use verbal redundancy in a manner indicating their sensitivity to various task demands. The data from Experiment II suggest that first-graders fail to give redundant messages because they do not realize that redundancy, in certain cases, will help their listeners. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering different types of informative messages within the context of specific task demands.

Why Young Listeners Do Not Benefit from Differentiating Verbal Redundancy

Previous research has shown that young listeners, unlike older ones, do not benefit from verbal redundancy because of developmental differences in the decision criterion used when responding. Could some of the developmental differences in how listeners respond to redundant communications be due to their drawing age-related different conclusions about what the speaker meant to convey with the utterance? This study investigated whether young listeners make certain, perhaps unwarranted, assumptions about speaker authoritativeness. First and fourth graders heard stories in which a protagonist had to respond to what could be interpreted as redundant directions. They were asked to judge how the protagonist would respond. Stories varied in terms of both the age and the certainty of the speaker. Possible response options varied on how the protagonist utilized and hence responded to the "verbal redundancy." The results indicated that when there are no explicit markers indicating speaker certainty, young children make different inferences than older ones about speaker meaning. Thus, these data help to show the importance of determining how listeners in a communicative interaction judge and interpret what they hear.

Why Young Listeners Do Not Benefit from Differentiating Verbal Redundancy

Why Young Listeners Do Not Benefit from Differentiating Verbal Redundancy

The effects of redundant communications on listeners: why different types may have different effects.

Much of our communication is redundant in that we say more than necessary to be informative. How listeners respond to verbal redundancy is important because of its frequency of occurrence and because such knowledge should enable us to increase our understanding of the development of listening skills. Previous research indicated qualitative developmental differences in how listeners respond to differentiating redundancy (several distinguishing features of a referent are mentioned). The present research compared performance with two forms of redundancy: differentiating and structured (e.g., mentioning a distinguishing referential feature and a feature shared by several contiguous stimuli) and investigated causes of differences in responding to the two forms. First- and fifty-graders participated in a referential communication paradigm. Results were discussed in terms of a processing capacity model: Redundancy should facilitate performance only if it decreases processing demands on a listener. Which processing demands will be affected will depend on the specific redundancy and the specific task.

Cross‐Channel Redundancy: a Strategy to improve Tape‐Slide Design

Abstract This study was designed to assess a technique for improving the retention of information presented in tape‐slide format. It was thought that placing verbal labels and descriptions derived from the audio portion of the programme side‐by‐side with pictorial content would enhance the retentional value of the material. In effect, this treatment was a two screen multi‐image tape‐slide programme. This condition (projected viewing guide) was compared with two other treatments: a standard one screen tape‐slide programme (tape‐slide only) and a treatment identical to the projected viewing guide except that the verbal redundancy was presented in printed form (printed viewing guide). A pre‐test and post‐test were used to assess verbal retention of the programme material and the data was analysed with analysis of covariance. The projected viewing guide condition was found to be the superior treatment and no differences were found between the other treatments.

The Effects of Redundant Communications on Listeners: When More Is Less

SONNENSCHEIN, SUSAN. The Efects of Redundant Communications on Listeners: When More Is Less. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1982, 53, 717-729. Much of our speech is redundant in the sense that we say more than is minimally necessary to be informative. However, little is known about the effects of verbal redundancy on listeners' responses. 3 studies investigated whether, and under what conditions, redundant verbal information would facilitate a listener's performance. Kindergartners, first graders, and fourth graders had to select which of several groups of pictures a message described. The messages were either redundant-mentioning more than minimally necessary to be informative-or contrastive-mentioning the minimum necessary to be informative. The results indicated that when the pictorial array was too difficult, due either to the size of the stimuli or the length of exposure, for the listeners to process everything, verbal redundancy facilitated the older children's performance by increasing the chances that they would notice 1 of the items mentioned. Redundant information never helped, and, in fact, even had a debilitating effect relative to contrastive messages on the younger children's performance. The younger children appeared both to have faulty recall and to use a different decision criterion relative to the older children. The data are discussed in terms of the implications for theories of communication development.