Verbal Paired-associate Learning Research Articles

Estrogen treatment effects on cognition, memory and mood in male-to-female transsexuals

Gonadal hormones, particularly estrogens, have been suggested to influence memory and cognitive tasks that show sex differences. Previously, we reported that male-to-female (M–F) transsexuals undergoing estrogen treatment for sex re-assignment scored higher on verbal Paired Associate Learning (PAL) than a transsexual control group awaiting estrogen treatment. The present study used a more robust design to examine further associations between estrogen and cognition. We assessed additional aspects of memory, including visual, spatial, object and location memory, other cognitive abilities that show reliable sex differences, including verbal and visual–spatial abilities, and mood variables that could mediate associations between estrogen and cognition. In addition to comparing groups of individuals on and off estrogen, we used two repeated measures designs (AB and BA). The AB group was tested prior to hormone treatment and then again after treatment had begun; the BA group was tested while on estrogen treatment and then again when hormones had been withdrawn prior to surgery. Few changes in memory or cognition were observed, and changes that were observed were not consistent across study designs. The lack of significant effects did not relate to mood changes or to the sexual orientation of participants. These findings suggest that estrogen treatment associated with sex change for M–F transsexuals has little or no influence on sex-typed aspects of cognition or memory.

Effects of Visual and Phonological Distinctness on Visual–verbal Paired Associate Learning in Dutch Dyslexic and Normal Readers

In three studies, the effects of visual and phonological distinctness on the visual–verbal paired associate learning of dyslexic and normal readers at the age of 10–12 were examined. We hypothesized that both groups would be equally affected by the visual distinctness of the pictures, whereas the learning performance of the dyslexic children would be more susceptible to the phonological distinctness of the verbal stimuli (words). As expected, in Study 1 we found that the visual distinctness of pictures had a similar effect on both groups. However, the results of Studies 2 and 3 on the effect of phonological distinctness did not support the hypothesis. Both reader groups were equally affected by the phonological distinctness of the words. In addition, we found that, although not consistently, dyslexic children tended to be worse in verbal learning, which could to a large extent be explained by their problems with phonological processing.

Saturday Abstracts

Background: One of the strongest findings in neuropsychological studies of schizophrenia is memory impairment, but the timing of this impairment is still unclear. In addition, the tools used to assess memory function have been varied and may not have assessed functions dependent on plastic brain regions.Methods:In this study we sought to investigate longitudinal change in associative memory in first episode psychosis patients, using both a verbal (paired associate learning from the Wechsler Memory Scale) and a visual (visuospatial paired associates from the CANTAB) associative learning test. Results: Our preliminary data from 16 patients and 13 controls (mean time between assessments = 73.4 months, range = 61.4 – 85.2 months) showed a significant decline in VSPAL function in the patient group (repeatedmeasures ANCOVA; Time x Group interaction F[1,24]=10.1, p=0.004), but no change in VPAL (repeated-measures ANCOVA; Time x Group interaction F[1,25]=0.01, p=0.915). Conclusions: These data support our previous cross-sectional study, and suggest that there are cognitive functions that decline with continued psychotic illness. It remains to be seen whether these progressive impairments are associated with structural brain changes. Supported by NHMRC 350241 & 299966

Verbal paired-associate learning by APOE genotype in non-demented older adults: fMRI evidence of a right hemispheric compensatory response

Previous studies of episodic memory report a greater extent of blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) response in non-demented older adults with the apolipoprotein E epsilon-4 (APOE ɛ4) allele than in those without the allele. We conducted a functional MRI study to investigate whether APOE genotype is related to brain response to verbal paired-associate encoding and consolidation, particularly in the right hemisphere, among non-demented older adults. Structurally segmented volumes and BOLD response were measured in 13 non-ɛ4 and 12 ɛ4 subjects. The ɛ4 group displayed greater activation than the non-ɛ4 group in multiple right hemisphere regions for previously encoded word pairs relative to fixation. Activation within manually outlined hippocampal regions of interest also displayed genotype-specific dissociations consistent with whole brain analyses. Furthermore, this differential BOLD response occurred in the presence of equivalent behavioral and neuropsychological performances as well as comparable hippocampal and overall structural segmentation volumes between groups. Results implicate a widely distributed and interconnected network of right hemisphere brain regions that may be involved in compensating for APOE ɛ4-related deficiencies associated with verbal episodic memory encoding and consolidation.

Measurement of Individual Differences

An examination of test manuals and published research indicates that widely used memory tests (e.g., Verbal Paired Associates and Word List tests of the Wechsler Memory Scale, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and California Verbal Learning Test) are afflicted by severe ceiling effects. In the present study, the true extent of memory ability in healthy young adults was tested by giving 208 college undergraduates verbal paired-associate and verbal learning tests of various lengths; the findings demonstrate that healthy adults can remember much more than is suggested by the normative data for the memory tests just mentioned. The findings highlight the adverse effects of low ceilings in memory assessment and underscore the severe consequences of ceiling effects on score distributions, means, standard deviations, and all variability-dependent indices, such as reliability, validity, and correlations with other tests. The article discusses the optimal test lengths for verbal paired-associate and verbal list-learning tests, shows how to identify ceiling-afflicted data in published research, and explains how proper attention to this phenomenon can improve future research and clinical practice.

Memory relationships between MRI volumes and resting PET metabolism of medial temporal lobe structures

Prior studies of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients showed that MRI volumes and resting PET scan measures of temporal lobe structures were related to memory. Weintrob and colleagues [Ann. Neurol. 2002;51:442–7] reported that PET glucose uptake in the left perirhinal cortex predicted verbal paired associate (PA) learning, whereas MRI volume of the left hippocampus did not. We investigated whether MRI volumes could account for memory functioning if both PET and volumes were from the same region in 18 TLE patients. Volumes and glucose uptake of the hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) were compared with WMS-III performance. Significant correlations were observed between hippocampal volumes and PA and Logical Memory (LM) Percent Retention, but not between memory and PHG volumes or any PET measures. Multiple regression revealed that hippocampal volumes, but not PHG volumes or PET, significantly predicted PA and LM retention scores. These findings suggest that hippocampal volumes provide unique information regarding memory.

P4-112 Differential bold brain response to verbal paired-associate learning by APOE genotype in nondemented older adults: a functional MRI study

P4-112 Differential bold brain response to verbal paired-associate learning by APOE genotype in nondemented older adults: a functional MRI study

Verbal paired associate learning in schizophrenia, schizophreniform psychosis and ‘at risk’ mental state

Verbal paired associate learning in schizophrenia, schizophreniform psychosis and ‘at risk’ mental state

Episodic memory and learning in patients with chronic schizophrenia

This study explored the pattern of memory functioning in 58 patients with chronic schizophrenia and compared their performance with 53 normal controls. Multiple domains of memory were assessed, including verbal and non-verbal memory span, verbal and non-verbal paired associate learning, verbal and visual long-term memory, spatial and non-spatial conditional associative learning, recognition memory and memory for temporal order. Consistent with previous studies, substantial deficits in long-term memory were observed, with relative preservation of memory span. Memory for temporal order and recognition memory was intact, although significant deficits were observed on the conditional associative learning tasks. There was no evidence of lateralized memory impairment. In these respects, the pattern of memory impairment in schizophrenia is more similar in nature to that found in patients with memory dysfunction following mesiotemporal lobe lesions, rather than that associated with focal frontal lobe damage.

Event-related potentials during delayed recognition of Wechsler memory scale-R paired associate learning

The P300 is a component of cortical event related-potentials that has been linked to memory and recognition. This study examined P300 amplitude and latency during recognition of pairs of words from the WMS-R Verbal Paired Associate Learning subscale. After 24 subjects learned the pairs of words, they were shown pairs of words taken directly from the subscale that were combined to form matching or nonmatching pairs. This parallels the Delayed Recall subtest of the WMS-R. P300 amplitude was greater during recognition of matching word pairs and most prominent at central and parietal recording sites. P300 latency was shorter for matching than for nonmatching pairs. This points to a degree of psychophysiological validity of the WMS-R paired associate learning delayed recall task.

Four Easy Memory Tests for Older Adults

This report describes four short memory tests which have been developed for use with older adults. Three of these tests are recognition memory tests; one is verbal, one is visual, and one is predominantly visual, but likely to involve some verbal mediation. The fourth task is a verbal paired-associate learning test which uses two sets of six high frequency words. Normative data obtained from 107 subjects aged 64-81 on all four tests are provided. A ceiling effect was obtained, indicating that these tests are relatively easy. A validation study was carried out, in which a group of patients with a cortical degenerative condition was assessed on the easy tests, and performance on published recognition memory tests could be compared with performance on the easy tests. Several patients who had scored at chance on the published version not only obtained measurable scores on the easy version, but also obtained discrepancy scores. Possible uses for the four short memory tests are suggested.

Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing's syndrome

Patients with chronic hypercortisolemia due to Cushing's syndrome (CS) exhibit cognitive dysfunction. Because glucocorticoid excess is associated with hippocampal damage in animals, and the hippocampus participates in learning and memory, we explored the relationships between hippocampal formation (HF) volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in 12 patients with CS. After magnetic resonance imaging, HF volume was determined using digital sum of track ball traces of dentate gyrus, hippocampus proper and subiculum, correcting for total intracranial volume. For 27% of the patients, HF volume fell outside the 95% confidence intervals for normal subject volume given in the literature. In addition, there were significant and specific correlations between HF volume and scores for verbal paired associate learning, verbal recall, and verbal recall Corrected for fullscale IQ (r = 0.57 to 0.70, p < 0.05). HF volume was negatively correlated with plasma cortisol levels (r = −0.73, p < 0.05). These studies suggest an association between reduced HF volume, memory dysfunction, and elevated cortisol in patients with CS.

Paired associate verbal learning in dementia of Alzheimer's type.

Paired associate verbal learning in dementia of Alzheimer's type.

Paired associate verbal learning in dementia of Alzheimer's type.

Paired associate verbal learning in dementia of Alzheimer's type.

Verbal and Abstract Designs Paired Associate Learning After Unilateral Temporal Lobectomy

The combined use of a new Abstract designs Paired Associates test with the Verbal Paired Associates test of Form 1 of the Wechsler Memory Scale was investigated with respect to eliciting material specific memory deficits after unilateral temporal lobectomy. Although the verbal test differentiated between the memory ability of these two groups more clearly than the Abstract designs test, the effectiveness of looking at the difference between total scores on the two tests was demonstrated. The two tests produced similar levels of performance in control subjects.

Neural dynamics of word recognition and recall: Attentional priming, learning, and resonance.

Abstract Data and models about recognition and recall of words and nonwords are unified using a real-time network processing theory. Lexical decision and word frequency effect data are analysed in terms of the same theoretical concepts that have unified data about development of circular reactions, imitation of novel sounds, matching phonetic to articulatory requirements, serial and paired associate verbal learning, free recall, unitization, categorical perception, selective adaptation, auditory contrast, and word superiority effects. The theory, called adaptive resonance theory, arose from an analysis of how a language system self-organizes in real-time in response to its complex input environment. Such an approach emphasizes the moment-by-moment dynamical interactions that control language development, learning, and stability. Properties of language performance emerge from an analysis of the system constraints that govern stable language learning. Concepts such as logogens, verification, automatic activation, interactive activation, limited-capacity processing, conscious attention, serial search, processing stages, speed-accuracy trade-off, situational frequency, familiarity, and encoding specificity are revised and developed using this analysis. Concepts such as adaptive resonance, resonant equilibration of short term memory, bottom-up adaptive filtering, top-down adaptive template matching, competitive masking field, unitized list representation, temporal order information over item representations, attentional priming, attentional gain control, and list-item error trade-off are applied.

Social facilitation effects resulting from locus of control using human and computer experimenters

The present experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that people with an internal locus of control (Rotter, 1966) will perform equally well in a paired associate verbal learning task regardless of whether the trials are administered by a computer or human experimenter, while people with an external locus of control will perform better when learning trials are administered by a human experimenter. A computer and a human experimenter were used to test 60 subjects who had been divided into either internal or external locus of control groups in a one-trial-to-learn paired associate task. An analysis of variance confirmed the study's hypothesis, revealing a significant interaction between subjects' locus of control and their performance in the two testing conditions. Implications for the use of the computer in psychological research are discussed.

TRS-80 BASIC Programs to Control Experiments Involving Paired Associate Verbal Learning Procedures

TRS-80 BASIC Programs to Control Experiments Involving Paired Associate Verbal Learning Procedures

BASIC-PLUS-2 programs to perform experimental procedures for paired associate verbal learning

These programs were designed to demonstrate standard methods for paired associate learning. They are also suitable for use in experiments in which individual subjects are exposed to the material to be learned and tested at a video computer terminal. The programs are written in BASIC·PLUS·2 for the Digital Equipment Corporation DECsystem 2060 computer under the Tops-20 operating system. The four programs in the package include (1) FILEMAKER, used to create input files holding the paired associates to be learned, (2) ANTICIPATION, used to present paired associates and record learning progress with the standard method of anticipation, (3) DISPLAY, used to present paired associates under controlled conditions and specifications, and (4) RECOGNITION, used to present a multiplechoice recognition test procedure for paired associates learned during a run of DISPLAY.

Alcohol and proactive interference: A test of response eccentricity theory of alcohol's psychological effects

A theory is offered which proposes that alcohol induces eccentricity in the neurophysiological mechanism by which responses are selected for emission by the nervous system. Hence, in a specific stimulus situation, normally high probability responses decrease in frequency, while lower probability responses increase in frequency. From this postulate, the prediction is derived that in a verbal paired-associate learning task administered over two days, alcohol will decrease proactive interference from first-day learning (high probability associate) and result in enhanced acquisition of second day items. This paper reports two experimental tests of the prediction, each of which employs four subject groups tested over two days. Experiment 1 ( n = 24) provides tentative support while ruling out some potential confounds. With these confounds eliminated, Experiment 2 ( n = 40) confirms the prediction in a more direct test. A variety of possible alternative explanations for the counter-intuitive finding of improved cognitive performance under alcohol are evaluated against the theory proposed, as are other recent theories which address the variable behavioral effects of alcohol. Finally, the new data gathered on the effects of imagery instructions on proactive interference are considered.