Verbal Measures Research Articles

Creating sustainable competitive advantage in the hospitality industry through commercial friendships: connecting the host and guest on a social and emotional level

ABSTRACT A large part of quality and competitive advantage in hospitality comes from friendly service. A lot of research in the hospitality industry is done from the viewpoint of management and aimed at how businesses should be designed to be friendly, yet little research is done into the perspective of the guest to show if the design works. This article tries to start the discussion and drive research towards a better understanding on how interaction between a host and a guest could lead to a concept called Commercial Friendship (CF), which comes from a connection on an emotional and personal level. CF is known to be beneficial to marketing investments, yet little research is done on friendship in marketing in general and even less in the hospitality industry in particular. This article puts forward a conceptual framework grounded in theory from hospitality, marketing, psychology and experience design. Research questions are given along with new ways to do research in hospitality design using a combination of verbal, behavioral and psychophysical measures.

An exploratory study: The effects of sleep systems on sleep quality, pain and carer goals for non-ambulant children and young people with cerebral palsy.

IntroductionSleep systems are supports used in lying, forming part of 24 h posture management programmes, for children and adults with severe motor disorders. Improved posture reduces likelihood of secondary complications such as pain and poor sleep quality, thus improving quality of life. The study aims are to investigate the effect of sleep systems on sleep quality and quantity, pain for young people with Cerebral Palsy and outcomes for carers.MethodsBaseline data were gathered for 1 month prior to sleep system provision. Comparative data with the sleep system in place, were gathered for 5 months. The sample comprised four children with Cerebral Palsy, GMFCS level V, average age of 11.5, who did not have a sleep system. Data on sleep quality and quantity was gathered using the Chailey Sleep Questionnaire and sleep diaries and pain levels using the Paediatric Pain Profile. GAS Light verbal outcome measure was used to measure carer goals.ResultsDescriptive statistics and paired sample t-tests were used, demonstrating pain levels remained static, improvements in sleep quality and quantity were found and carer goals achieved.ConclusionA small sample size and subjective data collection methods were used; further research is required to obtain more conclusive results.

Col Kirpal Singh Award

Introduction.Cognitive deficits in multiple domains are known to occur in patients with alcohol dependence and pose hindrance in management. Research in these deficits from India has been rare and course of these deficits is largely unknown.Aim:Our study aimed to find out the nature and extent of cognitive deficits using a Neuropsychological tool validated in the Indian population, and follow them up for 24 wks to ascertain change in the deficits.Materials and methods.The study was carried out at a psychiatry unit of a tertiary care centre in New Delhi, India. Eighty freshly diagnosed cases of alcohol dependence syndrome and 80 healthy controls were recruited for the study. PGI-BBD (Post graduate Institute – Battery of Brain Dysfunction) was administered on all patients and controls. The same was followed up at 2 wks, 6wks and 24 wks.Results.Compared to controls, the patients had significant dysfunction in all domains of PGI memory scale and verbal intelligence measures. However the dysfunction in the performance measures was not significant. These deficits improved significantly at 6 wks and 24 wks.Conclusion.There are significant cognitive deficits in patients with alcohol dependence syndrome and these deficits improve with abstinence. Keywords

A novel computer adaptive word list memory test optimized for remote assessment: Psychometric properties and associations with neurodegenerative biomarkers in older women without dementia.

IntroductionThis study established the psychometric properties and preliminary validity of the Stricker Learning Span (SLS), a novel computer adaptive word list memory test designed for remote assessment and optimized for smartphone use.MethodsWomen enrolled in the Mayo Clinic Specialized Center of Research Excellence (SCORE) were recruited via e‐mail or phone to complete two remote cognitive testing sessions. Convergent validity was assessed through correlation with previously administered in‐person neuropsychological tests (n = 96, ages 55–79) and criterion validity through associations with magnetic resonance imaging measures of neurodegeneration sensitive to Alzheimer's disease (n = 47).ResultsSLS performance significantly correlated with the Auditory Verbal Learning Test and measures of neurodegeneration (temporal meta‐regions of interest and entorhinal cortical thickness, adjusting for age and education). Test–retest reliabilities across two sessions were 0.71–0.76 (two‐way mixed intraclass correlation coefficients).DiscussionThe SLS is a valid and reliable self‐administered memory test that shows promise for remote assessment of aging and neurodegenerative disorders.

An overactive mind: Investigating racing thoughts in ADHD, hypomania and comorbid ADHD and bipolar disorder via verbal fluency tasks

BackgroundAdults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often report mental restlessness akin to racing thoughts found in hypomanic and mixed episodes of bipolar disorder (BD). Past research has suggested that racing thoughts in BD can be tackled via process-oriented verbal fluency measures. In ADHD, it is still unknown whether racing thoughts is due to comorbid BD, and its neuropsychological underpinnings remain to be investigated. To this aim, this study investigates process-oriented verbal fluency measures in adults with ADHD compared to adults with BD in a hypomanic episode, adults with ADHD + BD and healthy controls. MethodsThree verbal fluency tasks, i.e., the free, the letter and the semantic conditions, were administered to 37 adults with ADHD, 25 adults with BD in a hypomanic episode, 22 adults with comorbid ADHD + BD (euthymia) and 31 healthy subjects. Word production, clustering, and switching were analysed in verbal fluency tasks. ResultsAdults with ADHD, ADHD + BD and hypomania showed increased switches in the free verbal fluency task, compared to healthy controls, despite equivalent number of words produced. Unlike the ADHD and ADHD + BD groups, phonological clustering measures in the semantic task were increased in the hypomanic group compared to healthy controls. LimitationsBD groups were under medication. ConclusionsSemantic overactivation, reflected by increased switches in the unconstrained verbal fluency task, appear to be a common mechanism involved in racing thoughts in both ADHD and BD. By contrast, unusual sounds-based associations are specific of hypomanic speech and might contribute to the distinction trait and state racing thoughts.

What's in Your Nomogram? Personalized Prognostication of Verbal Memory Decline after Temporal Lobe Resection in Adults With Epilepsy.

ObjectiveThis study aims to develop and externally validate models to predict the probability of postoperative verbal memory decline in adults following temporal lobe resection (TLR) for epilepsy using easily accessible preoperative clinical predictors.MethodsMultivariable models were developed to predict delayed verbal memory outcome on 3 commonly used measures: Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), and Logical Memory (LM), and Verbal Paired Associates (VPA) subtests from Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition. Using Harrell’s step-down procedure for variable selection, models were developed in 359 adults who underwent TLR at Cleveland Clinic and validated in 290 adults at 1 of 5 epilepsy surgery centers in the United States or Canada.ResultsTwenty-nine percent of the development cohort and 26% of the validation cohort demonstrated significant decline on at least 1 verbal memory measure. Initial models had good-to-excellent predictive accuracy (calibration (c) statistic range = .77–.80) in identifying patients with memory decline; however, models slightly underestimated decline in the validation cohort. Model coefficients were updated using data from both cohorts to improve stability. The model for RAVLT included surgery side, baseline memory score, and hippocampal resection. The models for LM and VPA included surgery side, baseline score, and education. Updated model performance was good to excellent (RAVLT c = .81, LM c = .76, VPA c = .78). Model calibration was very good, indicating no systematic over- or under-estimation of risk.ConclusionsNomograms are provided in 2 easy-to-use formats to assist clinicians in estimating the probability of verbal memory decline in adults considering TLR for treatment of epilepsy.

Accelerated long‐term forgetting: Prognostic utility in familial Alzheimer’s disease

AbstractBackgroundIn Alzheimer’s disease (AD), temporal lobe pathology begins years before onset of clinical symptoms1. Early detection of temporal lobe dysfunction would be valuable for trials. Accelerated long‐term forgetting (ALF) – failure to recall learnt material when the interval of testing is extended to days as opposed to the traditional interval of minutes – has been shown to be a sensitive measure of early cognitive change in AD. However, it is not clear if ALF can predict future progression. Here we investigate the prognostic utility of ALF by assessing whether baseline performance is associated with subsequent cognitive and clinical decline.MethodThirty‐five at‐risk participants were recruited from UCL’s Longitudinal Cohort Study of Familial Alzheimer’s Disease (FAD). At baseline ALF was assessed by comparing recall performance at 7 days to performance after a 30‐minute interval. Visual (figure) and verbal (list and story) measures were used. Annual follow‐up visits included a detailed neuropsychological battery, mini‐mental state examination, Clinical Dementia Rating scale (CDR), measures of anxiety and depression and subjective memory decline. We tested for an association between baseline performance in ALF and rates of change in cognitive and clinical measures.ResultsAt baseline, mean time to estimated symptom onset (based on parental age at onset) for mutation carriers was 7.2 years (SD 4.5 years). Four mutation carriers became symptomatic (CDR>0); baseline performance in these cases was in the 5th‐23rd percentiles for verbal measures of ALF. We will present the value of accelerated long‐term forgetting in predicting cognitive decline in this cohort.ConclusionALF is a feature of presymptomatic AD with potential utility in stratification and prognostication.

The utility of the Oral Trail Making Test in telehealth assessments with cognitively impaired older adults

AbstractBackgroundDue to the recent COVID‐19 pandemic, many clinicians have transitioned to telehealth‐based cognitive assessments as a practical alternative to in‐person evaluations. Meta‐analysis has shown that verbally‐mediated measures of cognition are the most easily adapted to telehealth administration, while measures that include visual or motor components are more variably impacted. The Oral Trail Making Test (O‐TMT) is one verbal measure of executive function that removes motor and visual demands. However, there is a dearth of research related to the use of the O‐TMT in cognitively impaired older adults to evaluate executive function. Therefore, this project aimed to examine the relationship between O‐TMT scores with other neuropsychological measures in individuals with cognitive impairment.MethodForty‐one participants enrolled in the Emory Cognitive Empowerment Program underwent telehealth‐based neuropsychological assessment that included the O‐TMT. The O‐TMT is comprised of two parts. Part A requires individuals to count out loud from 1 to 25 and is primarily a measure of processing speed and simple attention. Part B requires individuals to alternate saying numbers and letters (1‐A, 2‐B, etc.) and is a measure of mental flexibility. Time to completion as well as total errors are captured during administration. Participants also completed the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) as a measure of global cognitive function, a measure of practical reasoning (Test of Practical Judgement), and a self‐report measure of cognitive change (Everyday Cognition). Correlational analyses were completed to examine the relationship between O‐TMT scores and global cognitive function, practical judgment, and subjective cognitive status.ResultsThe sample consisted of older adults (Mage = 72.84, SDage = 8.20) who were well‐educated (Myears = 16.07, SDyears = 2.22). O‐TMT Part B Time to Completion was moderately correlated with total MoCA score (r = ‐0.36, p = 0.03), such that slower performance was associated with poorer overall cognitive function. The O‐TMT was not significantly correlated with practical judgment or subjective cognitive status.ConclusionResults of the current study indicate poorer performance on the O‐TMT part B is associated with poorer overall cognitive function on the MoCA. Future research should examine the sensitivity and specificity of the O‐TMT part B for individuals who are cognitively impaired.

Oral and Verbal Praxis in Impaired Language Learners.

In the context of language descriptions, the terms oral and verbal praxis refer to volitional movements for performing oral gestures and movements for speech. These movements involve programming articulators and rapid sequences of muscle firings that are required for speech sound productions. A growing body of research has highlighted the links between oral motor kinematics and language production skills in both typically developing (TD) children and children with developmental language disorders, including Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Yet, there have been limited attempts to assess the link between non-linguistic and linguistic development. In the present study, we investigated oral and verbal praxis behaviors in children with SLI. Fifteen children with SLI formed a clinical group and 15 children with typical development who were matched to the clinical group for chronological age, gender, and socio-economic status formed the TD group. We assessed participants in both groups for their language abilities with age-appropriate standardized language tests. To investigate oral and verbal praxis behaviors, we administered the Assessment Protocol for Oral Motor, Oral Praxis and Verbal Praxis Skills to the two groups. We used the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test to compare the two groups with respect to oral and verbal praxis measures; and we found a significant difference between isolated and sequential movements in the oral praxis section in two age subgroups of these groups (p ≤ .05). Spearman's correlations revealed a strong correlation between core language scores and sequential movements in the younger children with SLI and in TD children. These results showed co-morbidity between SLI and poor oral motor skills, suggesting that SLI is not just a language disorder, but a group of co-morbid conditions that include oral motor and verbal praxis difficulties.

Moderated Online Data-Collection for Developmental Research: Methods and Replications.

Online data collection methods are expanding the ease and access of developmental research for researchers and participants alike. While its popularity among developmental scientists has soared during the COVID-19 pandemic, its potential goes beyond just a means for safe, socially distanced data collection. In particular, advances in video conferencing software has enabled researchers to engage in face-to-face interactions with participants from nearly any location at any time. Due to the novelty of these methods, however, many researchers still remain uncertain about the differences in available approaches as well as the validity of online methods more broadly. In this article, we aim to address both issues with a focus on moderated (synchronous) data collected using video-conferencing software (e.g., Zoom). First, we review existing approaches for designing and executing moderated online studies with young children. We also present concrete examples of studies that implemented choice and verbal measures (Studies 1 and 2) and looking time (Studies 3 and 4) across both in-person and online moderated data collection methods. Direct comparison of the two methods within each study as well as a meta-analysis of all studies suggest that the results from the two methods are comparable, providing empirical support for the validity of moderated online data collection. Finally, we discuss current limitations of online data collection and possible solutions, as well as its potential to increase the accessibility, diversity, and replicability of developmental science.

Computerized paired associate learning performance and imaging biomarkers in older adults without dementia.

This cross-sectional study examined whether performance on the computerized Paired Associate Learning (PAL) task from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery is associated with amyloid positivity as measured by Positron Emission Tomography, regional volume composites as measured by Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and cognitive impairment. Participants from the BIOCARD Study (N = 73, including 62 cognitively normal and 11 with mild cognitive impairment; M age = 70years) completed the PAL task, a comprehensive clinical and neuropsychological assessment, and neuroimaging as part of their annual study visit. In linear regressions covarying age, sex, years of education and diagnosis, higher PAL error scores were associated with amyloid positivity but not with medial temporal or cortical volume composites. By comparison, standard neuropsychological measures of episodic memory and global cognition were unrelated to amyloid positivity, but better performance on the verbal episodic memory measures was associated with larger cortical volume composites. Participants with mild cognitive impairment demonstrated worse cognitive performance on all of the cognitive measures, including the PAL task. These findings suggest that this computerized visual paired associate learning task may be more sensitive to amyloid positivity than standard neuropsychological tests, and may therefore be a promising tool for detecting amyloid positivity in non-demented participants.

Qualitative Deficits in Verbal Fluency in Parkinson's Disease with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Clinical and Neuroimaging Study.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in Parkinson's disease (PD) is considered a risk factor for PD with dementia (PDD). Verbal fluency tasks are widely used to assess executive function in PDD. However, in cases of PD with MCI (PD-MCI), the relative diagnostic accuracy of different qualitative verbal fluency measures and their related neural mechanisms remain unknown. This study aimed to investigate the relative diagnostic accuracy of qualitative (clustering and switching) verbal fluency strategies and their correlates with functional imaging in PD-MCI. Forty-five patients with PD (26 with MCI and 19 without MCI) and 25 healthy controls underwent comprehensive neurocognitive testing and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. MCI in patients with PD was diagnosed according to established clinical criteria. The diagnostic accuracy of verbal fluency measures was determined via receiver operating characteristic analysis. Changes in brain functional connectivity between groups and across clinical measures were assessed using seed-to-voxel analyses. Patients with PD-MCI generated fewer words and switched less frequently in semantic and phonemic fluency tasks compared to other groups. Switching in semantic fluency showed high diagnostic accuracy for PD-MCI and was associated with reduced functional connectivity in the salience network. Our results indicate that reduced switching in semantic fluency tasks is a sensitive and specific marker for PD-MCI. Qualitative verbal fluency deficits and salience network dysfunction represent early clinical changes observed in PD-MCI.

Characterizing the relationship between lesion-activation distance using fMRI and verbal measures in brain tumor patients

Functional resonance magnetic imaging (fMRI) allows for identification of eloquent cortex in pre-treatment planning. Previous studies have shown a correlation among lesion to activation distance (LAD) measures and morbidity and mortality. This study investigates the relationship between LAD, well-established language centers (Wernicke’s and Broca’s), and language performance measures. We included a sample population of brain tumor patients that received language fMRI (verbal fluency and sentence verification) for pre-treatment assessment (n = 51). LAD to the nearest language area was measured and divided into groups ≤ 10 mm and > 10 mm. Verbal fluency scores were compared between these groups. Additionally, patients were divided into similar groups based on LAD to either Broca’s or Wernicke’s areas, and the verbal fluency scores and sentence verification accuracy (n = 29) were subsequently compared between groups. Brain tumor patients with LAD ≤ 10 mm to either language area had significantly lower verbal fluency scores (p = 0.028). The difference in verbal fluency scores between groups with LAD ≤ 10 mm and > 10 mm to Wernicke’s area trends toward significance (p = 0.067). The sentence verification accuracy was significantly lower in patients with LAD ≤ 10 mm to either language area (p = 0.039). These findings suggest that there exists a significant relationship between LAD to language centers and measures; greater language deficits are seen when LAD ≤ 10 mm.

Baseline delayed verbal recall predicts response to high definition transcranial direct current stimulation targeting the superior medial frontal cortex

Anodal high definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) targeting the pre-supplementary motor area/dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (pre-SMA/dACC) has recently been shown to improve verbal retrieval deficits in veterans with chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI) (Motes et al., 2020), but predictors of treatment response are unclear. We hypothesized that baseline delayed verbal recall, a sensitive measure for post-TBI chronic cognitive decline, would predict therapeutic effects of HD-tDCS targeting the pre-SMA/dACC for verbal retrieval deficits. Standardized verbal retrieval measures were administered at baseline, immediately after and 8 weeks after treatment completion. We applied mixed generalized linear modeling as a post-hoc subgroup analysis to the verbal retrieval scores that showed significant improvement in Motes at el. (2020) to examine effects of active stimulation across the groups with baseline-intact delayed recall (N = 10) and baseline-impaired delayed recall (N = 8), compared to sham (N = 7). Individuals with impaired baseline delayed recall showed significant improvement (compared to baseline) in both category fluency and color-word inhibition/switch, while individuals with intact delayed recall showed significant improvement only in color-word inhibition/switch. Baseline delayed verbal recall may therefore be considered as a predictor for future electromodulation studies targeting frontal structures to treat TBI-related verbal deficits.

A-142 A Correlation between Reading Fluency and Processing Speed in a Child Population

Abstract Objective The aim of this study was to determine whether a correlation exists between reading fluency in the WJ-IV ACH and processing speed in the WISC-V. Method The data for this study was derived from a large de-identified database. Participants (n = 90) included individuals who completed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fifth Edition (WISC-V), which measures intellectual ability, and the Woodcock Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ-IV ACH), which tests for reading, writing, and mathematic achievement. The participants consisted of 36.7% White, 20% Black, 31.1% Hispanic, and 12.2% Other. From the sample, 66.7% were male and 32.3% were female. All the participants were administered the WISC-V and WJ-IV ACH (mean age = 10.53, SD = 2.50; mean education = 4.6, SD = 2.47). Vocabulary was controlled for. Results The results indicated a significant correlation between the WJ-IV ACH Reading Fluency and the WISC-V Processing Speed Index r(87) = 0.326, p = 0.002. Conclusions Previous research has found that deficits in processing speed affect reading efficiency. Cognitive processes are affected even in children with ADHD who are able to decode words accurately. Processing speed, specifically Coding in the WISC-IV, was found to be significantly associated with verbal span and measures of working memory. Moreover, processing speed and working memory have been found to be significant predictors of oral reading fluency (Jacobson et al., 2011). The current findings confirm a correlation between processing speed and reading fluency in updated versions of the forementioned assessments. Future research should investigate the role of comorbid diagnosis found in the functioning of both processing speed and reading fluency.

A-143 Sorry, I Wasn’t Paying Attention. The Moderating Role of Auditory Attention on the Relationship between Age and Verbal Learning

Abstract Objective Attentional difficulties are known to negatively impact learning (Hervey et al., 2004; Alderson et al., 2013). This study builds upon previous work examining the effect of sustained visual attention as a moderator of age and learning (Thomas et al., 2019) by examining performance on an auditory attention measure as a moderator of the relationship between age and performance on a verbal list-learning task. Method Archival data from 424 adults (Mage = 36.01, SD = 15.13) were collected at an outpatient clinic. Auditory attention was assessed via the Brief Test of Attention (BTA) raw score. Learning was assessed via the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-II) total T-Score (Trials 1–5). Results Results of a hierarchical linear regression indicated a significant effect between BTA and learning, (β = 0.287, F(1, 422) = 17.993, p < 0.001, ΔR2 = 0.078). There was no significant effect between age and learning, (β = 0.022, F(1, 422) = 0.204, p = 0.652, ΔR2 = 0.000). Additional results from a simple moderated regression analysis indicated a significant overall model between age, learning and BTA (F(3, 420) = 15.749, p < 0.001, ΔR2 = 0.1011) with BTA having a significant positive interaction effect on the relation between age and learning (β = 0.816, F(1, 420) = 10.436, p = < 0.001, ΔR2 = 0.022). Conclusion Sustained attention has been shown to be an important consideration when assessing verbal learning and memory performance. Present results demonstrate that when accounting for age, auditory attention is a significant positive predictor of performance on measures of verbal learning. Additionally, confirming prior research, performances on auditory attention and verbal learning measures are positively correlated.

Non-verbal and verbal parental mentalization as predictors of infant attachment security: Contributions of parental embodied mentalizing and mind-mindedness and the mediating role of maternal sensitivity

Interest in studying the relative contributions of verbal (e.g., maternal mind-mindedness [MM]) and non-verbal dimensions (i.e., parental embodied mentalizing [PEM]) of parental mentalization to child socio-emotional development is relatively recent. To date, only one study has addressed this issue in relation to child attachment security, suggesting a complementary and unique contribution of each one. The purpose of the present study was to further examine the specific contribution of PEM to infant attachment security by considering MM. In addition, this study aimed to explore the mediating role of maternal sensitivity linking PEM, MM to infant attachment security within 110 mother-infant dyads at moderate psychosocial risk. The two dimensions of parental mentalization (PEM and MM) were assessed on the basis of observations made during a videorecorded sequence of mother-child interactions in a context of free play with and without toys when the infants were 8 months old. The Maternal Behavior Q-Sort was used to measure the mothers’ sensitivity in a natural setting based on observations of daily mother-child interactions, also when the infants were about 8 months old. Attachment security was measured using The Strange Situation Procedure at infant age 16 months. The results showed positive correlations between maternal sensitivity and both verbal and non-verbal measures of parental mentalization. The mediation analyses first revealed that PEM had a significant indirect effect on attachment security, with sensitivity being identified as a mediator in this association. No indirect effect linking MM and attachment security via sensitivity was observed. These results highlight the contribution of PEM to maternal sensitivity and show maternal sensitivity to be a factor that partly explains the influence of PEM on attachment security in children.

Ability-related political polarization in the COVID-19 pandemic

In two large-scale longitudinal datasets (combined N = 5761), we investigated ability-related political polarization in responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. We observed more polarization with greater ability in emotional responses, risk perceptions, and product-purchase intentions across five waves of data collection with a diverse, convenience sample from February 2020 through July 2020 (Study 1, N = 1267). Specifically, more liberal participants had more negative emotional responses and greater risk perceptions of COVID-19 than conservative participants. Compared to conservatives, liberal participants also interpreted quantitative information as indicating higher COVID-19 risk and sought COVID-related news more from liberal than conservative news media. Of key importance, we also compared verbal and numeric cognitive abilities for their independent capacity to predict greater polarization. Although measures of numeric ability, such as objective numeracy, are often used to index ability-related polarization, ideological differences were more pronounced among those higher in verbal ability specifically. Similar results emerged in secondary analysis of risk perceptions in a nationally representative longitudinal dataset (Study 2, N = 4494; emotions and purchase intentions were not included in this dataset). We further confirmed verbal-ability-related polarization findings on non-COVID policy attitudes (i.e., weapons bans and Medicare-for-all) measured cross-sectionally. The present Study 2 documented ability-related polarization emerging over time for the first time (rather than simply measuring polarization in existing beliefs). Both studies demonstrated verbal ability measures as the most robust predictors of ability-related polarization. Together, these results suggest that polarization may be a function of the amount and/or application of verbal knowledge rather than selective application of quantitative reasoning skills.

Effect of late-onset epilepsy on cognitive functioning in patients with small vessel disease

RationaleLate-onset epilepsy (LOE) often has underlying cerebrovascular cause and has been associated with neurocognitive deficits and dementia. Nevertheless, the interplay between these factors has not been studied thus far. Hence, we conducted a retrospective cross-sectional study aimed to explore how unprovoked epileptic seizures along with vascular-related factors contribute to neurocognitive impairments in patients with cerebral small vessel disease. MethodsTwenty-seven patients with LOE aged > 60 years with concomitant cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD) and a matched group of cSVD without epilepsy were cognitively assessed. Demographic, clinical, and vascular information were obtained and vascular burden score was calculated for each patient. Multiple linear regression models were used to explore the relationship between epilepsy and cognitive measures adjusting for demographic and vascular risk factors. ResultsCompared with cSVD, cSVD-LOE group showed a poorer performance on verbal memory measures, visuomotor tracking and speed processing and phonetic fluency. In the multiple regression analysis, the presence of epilepsy was found to be the major predictor for verbal memory dysfunction, specifically in verbal short recall (p = 0.008) and verbal learning (p < 0.001). No interactions between vascular burden and epilepsy were found. ConclusionPatients who had cSVD with concurrent LOE showed poorer performance on memory function compared with patients with cSVD without epilepsy, and they showed a different cognitive profile from that typically manifested by patients with cSVD. The presence of epilepsy, but not seizure localization nor vascular burden, was the major contributor to the decrease in verbal memory.

Language and executive functioning in young adults with Down syndrome.

This study examined the association between executive functioning and language in young adults with Down syndrome (DS). Nineteen young adults with DS (aged 19-24years) completed standardised measures of overall cognition, vocabulary, verbal fluency and executive function skills. Friedman's analysis of variance (χ2 (3)=28.15, P<.001) and post hoc comparisons indicated that, on average, participants had a significantly lower overall non-verbal than verbal cognitive age equivalent and lower expressive than receptive vocabulary skills. Using Spearman correlations, performance on a verbal measure of cognition inhibition was significantly negatively related to receptive vocabulary (ρ=-.529, adjusted P=.036) and verbal fluency (ρ=-.608, adjusted P=.022). Attention was significantly positively correlated with receptive (ρ=.698, adjusted-p=.005) and expressive (ρ=.542, adjusted P=.027) vocabulary. Verbal working memory was significantly positively associated with receptive vocabulary (ρ=.585, adjusted P=.022) and verbal fluency (ρ=.737, adjusted P=.003). Finally, visuospatial working memory was significantly associated with receptive vocabulary (ρ=.562, adjusted P=.027). Verbal and non-verbal measures of executive functioning skills had important associations with language ability in young adults with DS. Future translational research is needed to investigate causal pathways underlying these relationships. Research should explore if interventions aimed at increasing executive functioning skills (e.g. attention, inhibition and working memory) have the potential to lead to increases in language for young adults with DS.