Verb Classes Research Articles

A novel approach for identification and classification of verbs in Dogri language

Morphological analyser, POS data, Stemmer etc. are the basic tools required for any NLP tasks, which are not available for Dogri language which recently has been declared as an official language of J&K, UT. Because of the unavailability of the basic tools, it remains a very low resourced language. In this paper, we have presented a sub task for the development of morphological analyser for Dogri language. We have identified the morphological behaviour of the verbs and implemented the automatic process of the identification of the verbs in Dogri language using paradigm approach. The various forms of verb taken into consideration are specifically transitive, intransitive, non-finite, gerund and infinitives. The average accuracy attained in the process of identification of transitive, intransitive, non-finite, gerund and infinitive verbs is 80%, 83%, 76%, 93%, 88% respectively.

Cross-cultural adaptation of the PEAK 2.0 instrument for the measurement of satisfaction and quality of care for institutionalized older adults

OBJECTIVE: To perform the Brazilian Portuguese cross-cultural adaptation of scales of satisfaction, quality of care, and quality of service constructed by the Promoting Excellent Alternatives in Kansas (PEAK 2.0) program for the measurement of person-centered care practices in the context of institutionalized older persons. METHODS: Cross-cultural adaptation was performed according to the following steps: translation; back translation; semantic, idiomatic, experiential, and conceptual equivalence; validation by an expert panel; and pre-test. This is an instrument with 32 individual items grouped into 4 subscales: overall satisfaction, quality of life, quality of care, and quality of service. RESULTS: The highest disagreement between experts was observed regarding verb conjugation and/or agreement aspects, which were adjusted. The pre-test, performed with 10 residents of long-term care facilities for older adults, showed that the “quality of life” and “quality of care” items had low levels of satisfaction. Although the residents demonstrated increased concern with the objective aspects of care, such as security and cleanliness, subjective aspects such as spirituality showed the lowest satisfaction levels. CONCLUSION: After cross-cultural adaptation, the overall satisfaction, quality of life, quality of care, and quality of service instruments of the PEAK 2.0 program were well understood by older adults and interviewers. The pre-test assessment showed that these instruments have a quick and easy application and can be used in Brazilian institutions.

PRAZNINE U ASPEKTUALNIM PARADIGMAMA PSIHOLOŠKIH GLAGOLA U SRPSKOM JEZIKU

The goal of this paper is to account for the gaps in the aspectual paradigms of experiencer verbs (verbs of emotion) in Serbian, i.e. to explain why certain verbs lack certain aspectual versions (imperfective, perfective or secondary imperfective). The proposed analysis ties the availability of aspectual forms to the thematic roles of participants in the situation denoted by the verb. Relying on Ramchand’s (2008) decompositional view of VP, it is assumed that there are two possible perfectivization options both of which depend on the presence of particular layers in VP structure and consequently particular thematic roles associated with those layers. The first perfectivization option is dependent upon the presence of the initiator argument (and InitP) while the second option is conditioned by the presence of the proper (affected) theme (or ResP). The lack of these two participants results in the systematic lack of perfective (the perfective gap). Secondary imperfective gaps are accounted for by the lack of true endpoint (the entailed endpoint of the resulting state, not just the situation denoted by the verb) while imperfective gaps are explained on a case-by-case basis appealing to the lack of lexicalization of certain verbal meanings or the fact that the verbal form is derived from a non-verbal stem.

Occasional words in the language of advertising

The article attempts to investigate the peculiarities of using of occasionalisms in the language of advertising. A thorough analysis of selected occasionalisms was performed on the level of phonetics, semantics and syntax. It has been proven that alliteration is the most often used means to increase the intonational expressiveness of an advertising slogan, as illustrated by numerous examples from newspaper articles. The analysis of belonging of occasional words to a certain part of the language has shown that they mostly belong to the class of nouns, adjectives and verbs with a positive connotation, thus contributing to the expressiveness of an advertising slogan. It has been confirmed that every occasionalism has been created for a certain advertising slogan by violating the language norms of word formation. Most occasional words have been formed by derivation, mainly affixation, base formation and abbreviation. From a syntactic point of view, the language of advertising is represented by affirmative, interrogative and exclamatory types of sentences. The main function of the selected occasional words is the nomination of certain products and services. Performing the function of an expressive means, occasionalisms are mostly used to provide a vivid description of the advertising product or service in order to attract the attention of consumers. It has been proved the expediency of using intentionally incorrect spelling of words, the so-called sensational or divergent spelling in the texts of the advertising slogan is considered to be one of the effective ways to attract the attention of modern consumers to the advertising product or service. As an example of an innovative tool in the battle for perspective consumers, the use of numerals and other graphic symbols has been singled out for the potential consumers’ attention, which will help to increase the effectiveness of the advertising slogan and remembering of its new expressive shades.

Как можно было распространять заведомо ложную информацию в xviii веке?

The paper considers a semantic class of verbs with the meaning ‘to spread false information about someone’ that functioned in Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia in the 18th century. The research material is the definitions of lexemes published in the dictionary of the “Russian language of the 18th century: Eastern Siberia. Zabaikalie” A. P. Maiorov/

КЛАССИФИКАЦИЯ ГЛАГОЛОВ МЕЖЛИЧНОСТНОГО ВЗАИМОДЕЙСТВИЯ С СЕМАНТИКОЙ ПСИХИЧЕСКОГО ВОЗДЕЙСТВИЯ

The purpose of this article is to describe the verbs of interpersonal interaction with the semantics of mental influence in the English language and to consider the criteria for semantic classification, on the basis of which the selected verbs can be grouped. There is a large number of works devoted to the study of lexico-semantic, pragmatic, morphological and other features of individual subgroups of interpersonal interaction verbs (in particular, compulsion verbs, verbs of speech influence, etc.), however, no attempt has yet been made to identify, study and classify a group of interpersonal interaction verbs with the semantics of mental influence. The material of the study is dictionary definitions from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English and Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, as well as examples from the National British Corpus. The study describes in detail the procedure for selecting verbs of interpersonal interaction with the semantics of mental influence, identifies the features that are integral for this group of verbs, as well as the criteria for semantic classification, on the basis of which the selected verbs were divided into subgroups. Verbs of mental influence have a complex semantic structure. The signs «interpersonal interaction» and «impact on the object» are integral for the studied group of verbs. The sign of intentionality is not integral, but it is included in the semantic structure of most verbs of this group. In addition, the semantic structure of verbs of mental effects shows thatthe classification of verbs in this group may be an indication of the impact on a particular area of the psyche which indicates the correlation of the meanings of mental influence verbs with the findings of modern psychological theory

Functional and semantic properties of classifications of verbs in russian linguistics

Functional and semantic properties of classifications of verbs in russian linguistics

The Pokuttia dialect on the background of the literary standard

Pokuttia dialect comprises a small area transit to the adjacent Bukovyna, Hutsul, and Dniester dialects, its nature is less discussed if compared to other Southwest Ukrainian dialects, and, therefore, its status is not properly defined so far. The most important studies on the topic were made by Kost’ Kysilevs’kyi, who provided a detailed description of Pokuttia dialect data gathered in the early 20th century. His evidence along with our audiorecords of Pokuttia dialect in 2009—2018 allowed us for a contrast-comparative analysis of the dynamics of the dialect. It shows that not only striking phonetic features of Pokuttia dialects are actively present in speech of the older and middle generation, but also unique phonetic phenomena previously noted by Kysilevs’kyi have been preserved, e.g., in the Sniatyn region area. An interaction of the Pokuttia dialect, one of Southwest Ukrainian dialects, and Standard Ukrainian is one of the main issues of this article. It manifests itself as in the analysis of those features of the dialect that contrast it with the literary language and distinguish it from other dialects of the Ukrainian language (primarily phonetic and grammatical features), and in the description of phenomena that support the modern literary norm (however, fewer of them were observed). The paper states the following grammatical features of the Pokuttia dialect: archaic pronouns, a number of phonetic variations in numerals and the most used adverbs, special forms of a verb paradigm and remnants of double plural, examples of “honorable” plural (in oral speech and written text), and forms of plusquamperfect previously used in Common Slavic. This set of features opposes the Pokuttya dialect to the other Ukrainian dialects and distinguishes it from Standard Ukrainian. The main feature of the Pokuttya dialect is resistance to leveling, despite the significant authority of the literary Ukrainian language for speakers. Keywords: dialect, literary standard, Pokuttia dialects, language dynamics.

Français.com: français professionnel, niveau débutant A1–A2 par Jean-Luc Penfornis

Reviewed by: Français.com: français professionnel, niveau débutant A1–A2 par Jean-Luc Penfornis E. Nicole Meyer Penfornis, Jean-Luc. Français.com: français professionnel, niveau débutant A1–A2. 3e éd. CLE International, 2020. ISBN 978-209-038689-9. Pp. 183. The third edition of the visually and pedagogically appealing Français.com (beginning level) adds up-to-date content on the French-speaking world and current professional communication. Each chapter culminates in a gros plan featuring readings and exercises centering on contemporary topics such as smartphone usage, distinguishing fake news from actual news (les infox), appropriate job interview questions, and life balance issues (temps physiologique, temps professionnel, temps domestique, temps libre), which appeal to students and instructors alike. They often pair with the preceding entre cultures section. For instance, unit 3's presentation of open-space vs. individual offices segues into a concise and useful presentation of apartment ads to be paired with four individuals with different needs. Colorful visual support (photos, drawings, authentic documents) flood the text—thus appealing to our students while cementing their learning. New written and audio activities, documents, and lexical content are accompanied by additional exercises. Similar to the intermediate-level text (3rd ed.), the focus on communication numérique—email, internet, online and social media in the business context—is valuable. Finally, the appendices combine concise grammatical explanations with supportive exercises, [End Page 278] dossiers de simulation (role plays), verb conjugation tables, three clear, particularly helpful pages on phonetics (something my students desperately desire in their current online environment), and valuable reminders on appropriate telephone and correspondence-related practices, which continue Penfornis's concise grammatical exercises, both in the text and in the appendices. The many mp3s on the included CD-ROM support the text (255); the student workbook (75); and the guide de communication (35). The latter contains scripts and supplementary lexical exercises. The volume's presentation as well as that of the student cahier d'activités remain a model of clarity. The seven chapters (premiers contacts; objets; agenda; voyage; travail; problèmes; tranches de vie) contain five lessons providing savoir-faire, grammatical support, and vocabulary. Each chapter concludes with three common sections: faire le point; entre cultures; gros plan. The student activity book provides exercises corresponding to the five lessons, as well as some training exercises for the DFP A2 and DELF PRO A2 exams. Reservations are minor: as the mp3s are simply labeled as sequential tracks, students may find it difficult to find the mp3 that corresponds to the assigned workbook activities. I recommend producing a corrigés for the textbook and student activity exercises. While gender balance is improved, the images do not sufficiently reflect the diversity of the French-speaking world. The text itself could further include the French-speaking world beyond the hexagon. Français.com's strengths are many, however: using current professional situations smoothly linked to grammatical learning, it promotes communicative activities, authentic tasks and vocabulary that prove useful for preparing students to function in the professional world, and possibly prepare the aforementioned exams. The volume also offers the potential to focus a beginning language course on an approach that engages students in the current professional world, and thus helps them understand how crucial learning French is to their future. E. Nicole Meyer Augusta University (GA) Copyright © 2021 American Association of Teachers of French

Language Memoir: A Return to Hebrew

Language Memoir:A Return to Hebrew Sheila E. Jelen Review of: What We Talk About When We Talk About Hebrew (And What It Means to Americans) ( Seattle, University of Washington, 2018), edited by Naomi B. Sokoloff and Nancy E. Berg In compelling essays that range from literary meditations to pedagogical prescriptions, from literary analysis to personal memoir, What We Talk About When We Talk About Hebrew (And What It Means to Americans) presents itself as the fruit of a new discursive community, one that is unique to Americans in the field of Hebrew studies. This volume brings together a group of contemporary scholars, novelists, and poets to speak to the question of how to re-engage Americans – children as well as college students, synagogue goers as well as secularists – in the study of Hebrew. What We Talk About is an invitation to Americans, like myself, who have straddled countries and languages, have found themselves teaching materials in American classrooms that don't always match up with the in-depth research they are doing in Hebrew, to tell their stories and to brainstorm future directions. In her own contribution to What We Talk About, Sokloff points to memoirs by "multi-lingual individuals who come to terms with incorporating more than one language into their lives," such as those authored by Richard Rodriguez, Eva Hoffman, Alice Kaplan, and Aharon Appelfeld.1 She encourages those whose native tongue is not Hebrew, but who have followed a Hebrew path, emotionally, academically and spiritually, to write "language memoirs" as well. In that spirit I would like to begin this review with my own, abbreviated, language memoir. All four of my grandparents were Holocaust survivors who had chosen to move to the United States instead of to Israel in the years after the war because [End Page 445] they felt that they had suffered enough. Subsequently, a generation later, I was born in the United States, but when I was about a year old, we moved to Israel. My brother was born just after the Yom Kippur war and my parents decided to leave Israel and return to Chicago, where I was raised. Whatever Hebrew fluency I had obtained in my day care environments in Israel was soon lost. When I pronounced Hebrew with an Israeli accent at my orthodox Jewish day school in Chicago, the children laughed at me, so I retrained myself to speak with an American accent. My education was profoundly Zionist – with many summers at Camp Moshava, a Bnei Akiva camp in nearby Wisconsin, and half a day from kindergarten through 12th grade dedicated to Hebrew and Judaic Studies. I remember the first Hebrew conversation I learned to conduct: Teacher: Shalom, Mah Shmekh? [Hello, What is your name?] Me: Shmi Shulamit. [My name is Shulamit] Teacher: Me'ayin at Shulalmit? [Where are you from Shulamit] Me: Ani Mi-America. Me-Ayin Ata? [I am from America. Where are you from?] Teacher: Ani Mi-Yisrael [I am from Israel] My formative Hebrew language experience took place in high school at Ida Crown Jewish Academy where my teacher, Mrs. Bass, refused to call me by my actual name (Shulamit) for all four years; instead, she called me Yocheved. In Mrs. Bass's class I read Agnon for the first time ("Tehilah" and "ha-Mitpahat"); I read Bialik ("El ha-Tzipor" and "ha-Matmid,"); I read Tchernichovsky ("ha-Adam Eino Elah"); I read Yizhar ("Efraim Hozer la-Aspeset"). I learned to conjugate verbs in every declension with every exception and to insert vowels into Hebrew texts. I took the Bechinah Yerushalmit. I joined my close friends at Camp Ramah the summer after high school but since I hadn't attended that camp as a camper, I didn't really have a natural peer group there. Instead, I became close to the group of Israelis who were dispatched by the Jewish Agency to work at the waterfront and in the woodshop, to lead religious services and Hebrew sing-alongs. I learned in one particularly awkward conversation that there is a difference between "lehitkaleah" (to shower) and "le-hitlakeah" (to burst into flames). I learned, as well, that "mah nishma" does not mean "what is heard...

On the Nature of the French Verbal Forms in the Code-Switching of Songhay, Bamanan and Fulah Speakers of French

Code-Switching is a process of bilingualism that involves the alternation of two languages in the course of a single conversation as a result of language contact phenomenon. This paper is about the conjugation of the verbal forms in the switches of bilingual Songhay-French, Bamanankan-French and Fulfulde-French speakers as pointed out in several studies by I. Abdoulaye (2013, 2016), M. Minkailou and I. Abdoulaye (2016, 2018), I. Abdoulaye and M. Minkailou (2017, 2019). The main objective of the present paper is to describe the verbal paradigm in the switches of these three different groups of francophone speakers according to the existing theories and models on Code-Switching and Code-Mixing constraints. Based on the Matrix Language Frame Model of C. Myers-Scotton (1993a, b), the paper aims at proposing and analysing a francophone alternative of grammatical constraint in code switching. The study uses secondary data collected from the research works cited above in which spontaneous and fresh conversations have been recorded, transcribed and translated into English in an oral corpus. The population of these three different investigations is heterogeneous consisting of bilingual Songhay, Bamanan and Fulah civil servants and university students. Examining the nature of the switches, the study purposely focuses on the intra-sentential code-switching, in which the participants alternate the two codes, inserting words from French into their respective native languages. Analysing the inflected forms of the French verbs embedded in Songhay, Bamanankan or Fulfulde codes, the study has revealed that all the switched verbs belong to the same verb form, the French past participle of the three verb groups (first, second and third). So, the study has concluded that this way of conjugating verbs in Code-Switching is typical to francophone second language leaners. This approach in Code-Switching that the authors are proposing as the Francophone Model of Switching Verbs is a result of linguistic transfer of L2 learners of French.

Classifier Medials across Algonquian: A First Look

This paper presents a description and analysis of Algonquian verbal classifiers, morphemes that index a salient superordinate feature (such as substance, consistency, or shape) of an argument or no...

Verb classes in Horpa

Abstract Based on argument indexation properties, this paper offers a model of four verb classes for Geshiza and Stau, two closely related and endangered Horpa lects spoken in Sichuan. Despite increased awareness and interest in Horpa, no exhaustive classification of verbs from the viewpoint of argument indexation has been offered. Even though argument indexation itself has been discussed in previous scholarship, the striking diversity of argument indexation patterns has not been addressed. It is shown that both Geshiza and Stau, the two lects chosen as the sample for this study, share the same verb classes, even though the class assignment of individual cognate verbs occasionally varies. The paper also describes how semantic and animacy features inherent in verbs, most prominently compatibility with human S and P arguments resulting in compatibility with speech act participants, play a crucial role in verb class assignment. Establishing a framework for Horpa verb classes helps in the ongoing descriptive work of these languages. In addition, it offers new material for typological studies of argument indexation.

АСПЕКТУАЛЬНА СИМЕТРІЯ ТА АСИМЕТРІЯ В УКРАЇНСЬКІЙ І РОСІЙСЬКІЙ МОВАХ

Background. The problem of the semantic and formal comparability of lexical units of different languages is important for comparative research of the specific linguistic division and the linguistic picture of the world in general. It is also important for the practice of teaching language as a non-mother tongue, especially in the context of contact closely related bilingualism.Purpose. The purpose of this article is to study the specifics of the relationship with the derivatives, forming its aspectual paradigm, individual meanings of polysemantic Russian verbs, compared to their Ukrainian semantic equivalents.Methods. The main methodological technique is opposition analysis, applied to both units of the same language and different languages. The semantic structure of verbs is established according to lexicographic sources and is updated to reflect corpus-based approach. The composition of aspectual paradigms is established according to word-forming and reverse dictionaries, semantic relations are checked with the help of explanatory dictionaries by comparing interpretations.Results. By the symmetry of the semantic structure of the basic verbs of different languages, we usually observe aspectual symmetry: rus белеть1: забелеть – ukr. біліти – забіліти, rus. белеть2: побелеть – ukr. біліти, білішати: побіліти, побілішати, rus. белеть3: забелеть, побелеть – ukr.. біліти, дніти: задніти, побіліти. According to the asymmetry of the semantic structure of basic verbs, semantic equivalents often have similar derivatives: rus. гладить1 – выгладить, погладить, разгладить – ukr. прасувати – випрасувати, попрасувати, розпрасувати; rus. гладить2 – погладить, ukr. гладити – погладити; rus. гладить3 – разгладить, ukr. рівняти – розрівняти. By the asymmetry of the semantic structure of basic verbs, partial aspectual asymmetry occurs: among aspectual derivatives, of the Russian verb болеть we find the verb of softening Aktionsart побаливать, похварывать і прибаливать, прихварывать and the verb баливать with a multiple meaning, the parallels of which are not found in Ukrainian material, in which we find: colloquial вихворіти and dialectic виболіти, похворіти (‘start being sick’ - about all or many).Discussion. Inspite of the close relationship of languages, the semantic structure of polysemous verbs often does not coincide with them. Word-formation tools in each language are also their own, although Ukrainian and Russian have much in common due to etymological relationship. The concept of an aspectual paradigm of a basic verb allows to consider motivated verbs, that modify the aspectual meaning and are defined for each lexico-semantic variant separately, as a certain complex, that is a formal marker of the aspectual meaning of the motivator. In the formation of the aspectual paradigm, the leading role belongs to the semantic factor, therefore, the aspectual derivatives of different meanings of Russian verbs often differ from each other, but Ukrainian semantic equivalents, regardless of whether they are meanings of the same verb, whether they belong to various lexical units in the Ukrainian language, have aspectual paradigms similar to the Russian ones. Differences in the composition of aspectual paradigms of different languages are due to: the specifics of the development of prefix systems; features of word-forming structure of semantic equivalents of basic units; additional semantic shades of units used as interlingual equivalents. Comparative study of the semantic structure of the basic verbs of related languages and their aspectual paradigms helps to clarify the semantic structure of the units of each of the languages, and the establishment of their aspectual paradigms makes it possible to form a dictionary register. Vocabulary fixation of all aspectual derivatives of polysemantic verb is very important as a methodological technique for teaching language as a second one.Keywords: polysemous verb, semantic structure, aspectual modification, aspectual paradigm, interlingual asymmetry, interlingual symmetry.

“Les copains *dit au revoir”: On Subject–Verb Agreement in L2 French and Cross-Linguistic Influence

This study focuses on the production of subject–verb (SV) agreement in number in L2 French and investigates the role of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in this particular morphosyntactic domain. CLI is a well-known phenomenon in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research but it has rarely been investigated systematically in relation to SV agreement in French. The participants of the study are 114 learners with Italian, German, Dutch and Swedish as L1. The source languages are all inflectional languages but they vary in terms of morphological richness in the verb paradigm, ranging from very poor (Swedish) to very rich (Italian). The participants performed an oral narrative task contrasting singular and plural contexts of SV agreement. Results indicate a significant difference between L1 groups in terms of correct SV agreement but they also show that the overall presence of rich verb morphology in the L1 does not, on its own, result in a more correct SV agreement. It is when comparing learners at two different proficiency levels that we observe differences in the rate of L2 development, which may be explained as an effect of CLI. Overall, results indicate a complex interplay of different factors, where the role of CLI must be further investigated in future studies in relation to L2 French.

Antipassive reflexive constructions in Latvian

The article presents a corpus-based investigation of the antipassive reflexive constructions of Latvian. They are subdivided into deobjectives (with suppression of the object) and deaccusatives (with oblique encoding of the object). The emphasis is on the lexical input for the two constructions, frequencies and degrees of lexical entrenchment. The authors identify two subtypes of deobjectives: behaviour-characterising deobjectives (lexically entrenched) and activity deobjectives (weakly entrenched but freely produced ‘online’, hence detectable only through a corpus search). Deaccusatives tend to be lexically entrenched; they are strongly associated with the lexical class of verbs of (chaotic) physical manipulation, but extend beyond this class thanks to processes of metonymy and metaphorisation. The authors argue that while antipassives are often defined as constructions suppressing the object or optionally expressing it as an oblique argument, patientless and patiented antipassives are actually different constructions with constructional meanings of their own. While deobjectives conceptualise agency as a self-contained event even though an object is notionally required, deaccusatives convey low affectedness of the object.

Seeing and Believing: The Relationship between Perception and Mental Verbs in Acquisition

ABSTRACT Perception verbs and mental verbs have significant overlap in their syntax and semantics; both reference mental representations when taking embedded clauses, as in I see that Maria was here and I think that Maria was here. Some have suggested that perception is more accessible for young children than mental states, raising the question of whether perception verbs could serve as a semantic model for the acquisition of mental verbs via their shared syntax. Since embedded clauses are key to referencing mental states for both verb classes, we examine the developmental trajectory of perception vs. mental verbs in these constructions and others. Using a sample of 5,884 child-produced utterances and 8,313 parent-produced utterances from the Brown and Gleason corpora of CHILDES, we analyze children’s production of perception and mental verbs in their syntactic frames, as well as that of their parents. We find that children begin to produce embedded frames for both perception and mental verbs around the same time, but produce embedded frames with mental verbs more often, especially as they get older, despite greater use of perception verbs overall. These patterns do not reflect parental input: parents produce both verb types with similar frequency and use embedded frames more often than their children. These findings suggest that perception verbs are unlikely to serve as a model for mental verbs, and instead that mental verbs and their regular occurrence with embedded frames may provide a model for perception verbs when the latter reference mental states. We propose a semantic updating account for children’s acquisition of perception verbs, arguing that children’s early knowledge of perception verbs may not include mental state representations as a component of their meaning, and that this may only develop later as children learn the propositional syntax that is shared by and regularly occurs with mental verbs.

TO THE QUESTION ABOUT THE SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERB (IN FRENCH VERBS)

The article deals with the semantic classification of verbs whichdenote the name of the action performed by the noun.

Analysis Of Verbs In The Works Of Mahmud Zamahshari

This article, devoted to the analysis of parts of speech in the works of Makhmud Zamakhshari, addresses the question of conjugation of verbs in the last chapter named “Tasrifu-l-af’al” of the book “Mukaddamatu-l-adab”. The article emphasizes that the verb is an important part of speech in Arabic, that it is impossible to master the grammatical rules and categories without knowing its morphological features, that some parts of speech, especially masdars, the degrees of adjectives are formed from verbal roots. In “Mukaddamatu-l-Adab” was written that verbs in Arabic are divided into verbs with three and four roots and the majority are the verbs with three roots. Verbs with four roots, as well as verbs with three roots, lean with the help of those suffixes and prefixes. In the formation of the present tense forms, imperative forms, masdars, participles are also based on the same rules as for three-verbs. Makhmud Zamakhshari, defining the doubled verbs as verbs in the three-root group, in which the second and third roots consist of the same letter, emphasizes that the hamza is a “healthy” letter, not defective, and because of its complex pronunciation it is either changed with another letter or sometimes it is missed when pronounced and this provides ease of pronunciation. The question of writing hamza and its spelling has always been a difficult question of the language. Since Zamakhshari created his work for the quick study of Arabic and its grammar by non-Arab people, he did not go deeply into the essence of some difficult questions of Arabic language. The scientist notices that ings are added to the verbs of the actual voice gives samples conjugation of regular verbs in the past tense, and says that all regular verbs and verbs that are similar to regular verbs are conjugated in the above order. In his work, Zamahshari gave a sample of the conjugations of the verbs of the passive voice and examples of adding personal endings to such verbs, as well as conjugations of regular verbs, and verbs similar to regular verbs, empty and defective verbs. The scholar’s work not only gave conjugation of verbs, but also provided exceptions to the rules, it also highlighted a separate chapter in the interpretation of the imperative form in Arabic. The work contains information that the formation of an imperative form from verbs of the present-future tense. The article emphasizes that the verbs of surprise are formed only from the first chapter of the three-root verbs, that such forms are not formed from verbs expressing physical imperfection. Ways of expressing astonishment from doubled and defective verbs are commented. Regarding the verb conjugation, which is devoted to the chapter on the study of infinitives (masdar), the author dwells on the names of actions, ways of forming masdars from empty verbs, gives definition to real and passive participles, gives examples of their formation. This chapter provides information on the formation of real and passive participles from the derived chapters and four-root verbs, an interpretation of the adjective forms of the excellent and comparative degrees.

Libyan Students’ Syntactic and Semantic Problems in Using Phrasal Verbs to Write English Texts

This study aimed to explore the existence of syntactic problems and semantic problems and to explain the relation of syntactic problems to semantic problems among Libyan students in using phrasal verbs during writing English texts. The participants in this study were ten Libyan students studying in three Universities in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia. The ten participants were from different majors of Master and Doctoral degrees. They can use English language in their study so they have a basic knowledge of English. The data were ten English which taken by Libyan students as previous papers. In this study, the researcher used a descriptive qualitative method to analyze the data. The results showed that Libyan students have three problems related to adverb insertion, particle placement and fronting particle and they have semantic problems in understanding the meanings in the semantic classes of phrasal verbs and semantic (non-)compositionality. Finally, the researcher found out that the syntactic behaviour of particles depends on semantic (non-)compositionality.