Vent Pecking Research Articles

Infectious Bronchitis Virus California Variant CA1737 Isolated from a Commercial Layer Flock with Cystic Oviducts and Poor External Egg Quality.

False layer syndrome is a condition in which the reproductive tract of chicks is infected with infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strains that cause permanent damage to the oviduct. These chickens subsequently develop cystic oviducts and do not lay eggs, and affected flocks fail to reach expected egg production peaks. The California Animal Health and Food Safety laboratory, Turlock Branch, received four separate case submissions from a 25-to-28-wk-old commercial ISA Brown layer flock. Birds were submitted for diagnostic evaluation due to suboptimal egg production and vent pecking. Submissions totaled 31 birds and consisted of live layers, recent mortality, and a flat of eggs. No clinical signs were observed in the submitted live birds. The most common gross findings included cystic left oviducts, signs of vent pecking, ovarian regression, and yolk coelomitis. The eggs were abnormally shaped with irregular, white, gritty deposits on the surface of the shell. Microscopically, there was atrophy of the oviducts, glandular hypoplasia, and lymphocytic salpingitis. In addition, lymphoplasmacytic tracheitis was observed, and renal tubules were dilated with multifocal areas of mineralization. IBV was identified by reverse transcription quantitative PCR from cecal tonsil tissue pools and tracheal swab pools. Sequencing of the S1 hypervariable region of IBV and whole-genome IBV sequencing were 97% homologous to the California variant CA1737/04. Definitive proof of the CA1737 strain's causing reproductive abnormalities will require challenge studies with fulfillment of Koch's postulates and evaluation of confounding and risk factors.

Types and clinical presentation of damaging behaviour - feather pecking and cannibalism in birds

Behavioural disorders, including feather pecking and cannibalism, are a common problem in both domestic and wild birds. The consequences of this behaviour on welfare of birds incur serious economic losses. Pecking behaviour in birds is either normal or injurious. The type of normal pecking behaviour includes non-aggressive feather pecking – allopreening and autopreening. Aggressive feather pecking aimed at maintenance and establishment of hierarchy in the flock is not associated to feathering damage. Injurious pecking causes damage of individual feathers and of feathering as a whole. Two clinical presentations of feather pecking are known in birds. The gentle feather pecking causes minimum damage; it is further divided into normal and stereotyped with bouts; it could however evolve into severe feather pecking manifested with severe pecking, pulling and removal, even consumption of feathers of the victim, which experiences pain. Severe feather pecking results in bleeding from feather follicle, deterioration of plumage and appearance of denuded areas on victim’s body. Prolonged feather pecking leads to tissue damage and consequently, cannibalism. The nume­rous clinical presentations of the latter include pecking of the back, abdomen, neck and wings. Vent pecking and abdominal pecking incur important losses especially during egg-laying. In young birds, pulling and pecking of toes of legs is encountered. All forms of cannibalistic pecking increase morta­lity rates in birds. Transition of various pecking types from one into another could be seen, while the difference between gentle, severe feather pecking and cannibalism is not always distinct.

Molecular diagnosis of infectious bursal disease outbreak in chickens in and around Aizawl district of Mizoram, India

A study was conducted during the period from April, 2020 to March, 2021 to survey the occurrence of infectious bursal disease, as well as to study the pathology and its diagnosis in chickens in and around Aizawl, Mizoram. A total of 358 dead birds were collected from different organized and unorganized poultry farms in and around Aizawl, Mizoram. IBD was presumptively diagnosed in 62 (17.31%) cases basing on history, clinical signs, gross and histopathology. Most of the cases were seen in the age group of 3-6 weeks with morbidity, mortality and case fatality rates of 39.17-47.25%, 16.11-23.73% and 39.19-50.22%, respectively. The disease was found to occur throughout the entire year with more incidences during winter season followed by summer and rainy seasons. Typical signs exhibited by the affected flocks were acute onset of depression, dullness, dehydration, anorexia, slight tremors during the onset of disease, closed eyes, droopy appearance and ruffed feathers along with whitish loose or mucoid diarrhoea. Most of the affected birds were having tendency for vent pecking, soiled vent feathers and inflammation of cloacae. On necropsy, carcasses showed dark discoloration of thigh and pectoral musculature with paint brush hemorrhages. Bursa were swollen, congested, edematous with accumulation of thick mucoid exudates; while in some cases there were presence of caseative mass inside bursa and hemorrhages were recorded at the junction of proventriculus and gizzard. Microscopic examination of bursa revealed complete lymphoid depletion leading to formation of cysts filled with heterophils and exudates and extensive hemorrhages in interfolicular tissue. Out of 62 (17.31%) chickens clinically suspected for IBD, 37 cases (59.67%) were confirmed by RT-PCR.

Principal Lesions and Patterns of Mortality Observed in a Broiler Breeder Flock During the Laying Period

In any broiler breeder flock, there is always some mortality that is considered to be “normal” during the life of the flock. The aim of this study is to summarize the prevalence and patterns of mortality during the production period. To evaluate the mortality, each dead hen was systematically and completely examined via necropsy. In addition to post mortem evaluation, weights (whole body, liver, spleen and heart) were recorded to correlate the bird’s physical condition with the mortality category or lesion. In general, the variation in mortality was not associated with the specific weight of the organs. However, for specific diseases like fatty liver, septicemia and ascites, there was a correlation with the organ weight of the liver, spleen and heart respectively. Ovaritis was observed to be the most prevalent lesion found in dead hens during the production period followed by ovarian regression (atrophy), peritonitis, internal lay and vent pecking. The two periods with the higher total percentage of morality were onset of lay (25-30 weeks) and end-stage of the production period (56-61 weeks). During the laying period, we mainly observed metabolic disorders followed by infectious lesions. Infectious lesions, including ovaritis and septicemia, were the predominant cause for mortality at the onset production. Vent and feather pecking were also primarily concentrated during the first weeks of the production period. Metabolic diseases were observed in higher prevalence during the latter half of the production period.

Current methods and techniques of beak trimming laying hens, welfare issues and alternative approaches

Beak trimming is used in the egg industry to prevent mortality from cannibalism and minimise injurious pecking, vent pecking, aggressive pecking at the head and all forms of feather pecking, although the practice does not completely reduce the damage. There are alternatives to beak trimming, but they have not been reliable in preventing injurious pecking. However, beak trimming should not be used without providing birds enriched indoor and outdoor environments. Even when birds are beak trimmed, providing enriched facilities is recommended. The two main methods of beak trimming are hot blade (HB) and infrared beak treatment (IRBT). HB trimming removes the beak tips and cauterises the beak stump. The IRBT method uses heat from an infrared lamp to treat the outer beak and the underlying tissue. Initially, the tips of the beak remain intact and then soften and wear as the bird uses its beak. In contrast, the HB method results in an open wound that takes 3 weeks to heal. Two major welfare issues arise from beak trimming. The first is loss of sensory input because of removal of or heat treatment of sensory receptors in the beak. The second issue is the potential for acute and chronic pain from severing or heat treatment of nerves. HB trimming initially results in acute pain but there is limited evidence for beak sensitivity in IRBT birds. The development of neuromas in the beak have been implicated as a cause of chronic pain after HB trimming. When birds are HB trimmed (one-half of upper beak; one-third of lower) in the first 10 days of life, neuromas will develop, but they will resolve, compared with birds trimmed at older ages. However, neuromas will not resolve in 10-day old birds if more than one-half of the beak is HB trimmed. While HB trimming is performed according to accreditation standards by removal of one-half the upper beak and one-third of the lower beak is considered excessive, it prevents beak regrowth and the need to subject birds to re-trimming and a second bout of acute pain from the beak wound. Current levels of IRBT to treat half of the beak using the vendors quality-assurance protocol have been implemented worldwide to ensure that neuroma formation is prevented; however, if severe levels of IRBT are used, acute pain and subsequent neuromas may persist. The main impact of beak trimming is how the bird uses its beak when it eats, drinks and pecks at other birds and the environment. Reduced feed intake after HB trimming indicates pain associated with pecking or difficulty in eating. HB-trimmed birds initially show an increase in listlessness and guarding behaviours and increased inactivity, which indicates pain. IRBT and HB-trimmed birds have fewer aggressive pecks at the head, and there is a reduction in severe feather pecking and better feather scores, which results in a large reduction in mortality. Depending on the severity of IRBT and HB trimming, the advantage of using IRBT is improved welfare.

Reducing feather pecking and cloacal cannibalism by providing layer breeders with nest boxes in colony cages for natural mating

Colony cages for natural mating have been applied on many layer breeder farms. However, feather pecking and cloacal cannibalism are considered as prominent problems for these systems. This study aimed to investigate the effects on feather pecking and vent pecking behaviors by providing layer breeders with nest boxes (0.90 m L × 0.40 m W × 0.60 m H) in colony cages for natural mating (4.80 m L × 1.20 m W × 0.71 m H). Video recording and artificial observation were adopted. The results showed that the usage of nest boxes gradually increased from the beginning of nest boxes providing at the age of 37 weeks to the end of the experiment at the age of 55 weeks. The utilization rates of nest boxes were 36.75%, 44.75% and 50.38% at the ages of 41 weeks, 47 weeks and 53 weeks, respectively. The hens in the cages without nest boxes showed significantly more frequent gentle feather pecks (both given and received) than hens in the cages with nest boxes at the ages of 41 weeks, 47 weeks and 53 weeks. A decreasing trend of gentle feather pecking frequency (both given and received) was found with the increasing age for both the two groups. No significant difference was found in the number of given or received severe feather pecks at the age of 41 weeks. The hens in the cages without nest boxes showed a significantly higher frequency of given and received severe feather pecks than hens in the cages with nest boxes at the ages of 47 weeks and 53 weeks (p<0.05). Both cannibalistic injury occurrence and mortality rate in the cages with nest boxes were significantly lower than those in the cages without nest boxes. In conclusion, providing nest boxes in colony cages for natural mating could decrease abnormal pecking behaviors and improve animal welfare conditions of layer breeders. Keywords: feather pecking, vent pecking, nest box, colony cage, cloacal cannibalism, layer breeder, animal welfare DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181106.3323 Citation: Shi H P, Zheng W C, Tu J, Li B M. Reducing feather pecking and cloacal cannibalism by providing layer breeders with nest boxes in colony cages for natural mating. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(6): 27–32.

Characteristics of commercial poultry and spatial distribution of metabolic and behavioural diseases in Oyo State, Nigeria

This study was conducted to determine the characteristics, types and spread of poultry metabolic and behavioural diseases in Oyo State using a structured questionnaire spread across the 33 Local Government Areas of the state. One hundred commercial farms were randomly selected across the state but only seventy-eight responded. Data were collected on age of farm, number of stocks, types of poultry kept and types of poultry disease experienced and were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Coordinates of the farms were captured with the aid of Global Positioning System (GPS) and imported into Geographical Information System (GIS) to produce disease risk maps of the study area. Results revealed that 58.98% of the sampled poultry farms in Oyo State were established between 5 and 10 years ago and were mostly small scale commercial farms (48.72%) with less than five thousand (<5,000) birds. Only 3.84% of the farms possessed more than 120,000 birds, while 83.34% reared chicken, and 53.85% raised layers. The result also revealed that 89.74% of the farms experienced disease occurrence. Heat stress (23.08%) and vent pecking (38.46%) were the major metabolic and behavioural diseases, respectively experienced in Oyo State. The study concluded that majority of the commercial farms were small scale enterprises and layers constituted the highest proportion of chickens reared. Also, Oyo State had moderate to high potential for metabolic and behavioural diseases spread in 23 Local Government Areas while vent pecking and heat stress were the major diseases affecting most of the poultry commercial farms. Commercial poultry farms in Oyo State are enjoined to improve on their management techniques such as appropriate stocking density, good housing design and orientation, good feed and water management, effective structural and operation bio-security, proper hygiene and sanitation for better and efficient production targets. Keywords: Behavioural disease, Commercial poultry, GIS, Metabolic disease, Oyo State

The risk factors affecting the development of vent pecking and cannibalism in free-range and organic laying hens

AbstractInjurious pecking remains one of the biggest animal welfare and economic challenges for free-range egg producers. This prospective epidemiological study investigated the development of vent pecking (VP) and cannibalism on 62 free-range and organic UK farms (119 flocks). Flocks were visited at 25 (± 5) and 40 (± 5) weeks of age. Rates of VP were recorded and farmers were asked whether they had observed cannibalism in their flocks. Environmental and management data were collected for each flock. Risk factors associated with these behaviours were modelled using MLwiN. VP was observed in 19.5 and 29.9% of flocks, at mean rates of 0.35 and 0.21 bouts per bird per h, at 25 and 40 weeks, respectively. Cannibalism was reported at 22.6% of visits. The odds of flocks showing VP or cannibalism increased with rate of severe feather pecking (SFP). VP was more likely to be observed in laying houses with more and/or longer pop holes and where feed was scattered on the floor. Providing more aerial perch length, or perches &gt; 0.5 m in height, was associated with increased risk of VP. When SFP was excluded from the model, likelihood of VP was higher in flocks fed pelleted feed. All of these may provide a useful basis from which to derive management strategies to reduce the risk of VP and thus improve the welfare of laying hens. However, it is important to remember that this study does not elucidate the causal relationships between these variables, and further work is needed to understand the mechanism behind these associations.

Turkey farming: Welfare and husbandry issues

A review was undertaken to obtain information on the major welfare issues associated with turkey farming. In the hatchery there are some negative effects of long term storage of turkey fertile eggs on post-hatch growth and quality of chicks. There is a view that free range turkeys housed on deep litter in naturally ventilated sheds with natural light and access to forage and shelter belts is beneficial to bird welfare. However, an increase in mortality in the last few weeks of growth can be caused by very hot or cold environmental temperatures. Turkey welfare can be compromised at high stocking density. The selection of fast growing strains of turkeys has resulted in leg and locomotory problems. Mortality rates in turkeys caused by gait problems range from 2 to 4%. However, intermittent lighting improves bird activity and a decrease in locomotory problems. Under commercial conditions, domestic turkeys are often aggressive towards other birds. Beak treatment is used to prevent injuries caused by cannibalism, bullying, and feather and vent pecking with infrared beak treatment the most common trimming method used. However birds that have been severely beak treated can develop chronic pain. The barren environment of turkey houses has been identified as a major cause of poor animal welfare and responsible for cannibalism. Use of straw bales in the shed and elevated platforms gives the bird the chance to explore the environment and reduce pecking. Foot pad dermatitis (FPD) is a common condition in turkeys and is largely caused by wet litter. Apart from bird flu, Blackhead is one of the most serious poultry diseases in turkeys. Mortality can reach 70% in some flocks. Good management is essential to maintain turkey health and welfare including taking action to minimise contact of turkeys with wild birds and other animals. Pick-up of turkeys from sheds for transport to processing plant can result in welfare concerns. Mortality has long been a concern in relation to turkey transport. During this procedure the heads or wings of the birds can be injured against the solid sides of the crates, birds are exposed to temperature extremes, sudden acceleration and braking of the vehicle, vibration, fasting, injuries, social disruption and noise. Key words: Turkey, welfare, cannibalism, beak treatment, stocking density, cannibalism, transport.

A bespoke management package can reduce levels of injurious pecking in loose-housed laying hen flocks

This study investigated the protective effects of an on-farm management package designed to reduce injurious pecking (IP) in loose-housed laying hens. A systematic review of scientific literature generated 46 potentially...

Comparison of the welfare of layer hens in 4 housing systems in the UK

1. The welfare of hens in 26 flocks (6 conventional cage, 6 furnished cage, 7 barn, 7 free-range) was assessed throughout the laying period using a combination of data on physical health, physiology and injurious pecking, collected by researchers on farm and during post-mortem analysis, and information submitted by producers. 2. There was an effect of housing system on 5 of the indicators recorded by researchers: gentle feather pecks given, feather damage score, proportion of hens with feather damage, proportion of the flock using perches, and faecal corticosterone. 3. Post-mortem analysis revealed several differences between housing systems in skin damage, plumage damage to the vent and abdomen, keel protrusion, bodyweight, and the proportion of hens that were vent pecked and that had old and recent keel fractures. 4. There was an effect of housing system on 5 indicators recorded by producers: proportion of egg shells with calcification spots, proportion of egg shells with blood stains, weight of hens found dead, temporal change in the proportion of egg shells with stains, and temporal change in proportion of hens found dead. 5. Each housing system had positive and negative aspects but overall, hens in barn systems had the highest prevalence of poor plumage condition, old fractures, emaciation, abnormal egg calcification, and the highest corticosterone. Hens in conventional cages sustained more fractures at depopulation than birds in other systems. Vent pecking was most prevalent in free-range flocks. The lowest prevalence of problems occurred in hens in furnished cages. 6. Although housing system had an influence on the hens’ physical condition and physiological state, the high prevalence of emaciation, loss of plumage, fractures and evidence of stress is of concern across all housing systems, and suggests that the welfare of modern genotypes is poor.

Occurrence Of Egg Impaction And Peritonitis In A Flock Of Commercial Laying Hens In Damaturu Nigeria

Some reproductive disorders in poultry which include peritonitis, salpingitis and impaction of oviduct are described as ‘egg peritonitis\' (Jordan, 1990). Egg peritonitis can occur as a severe flock problem and when it does it is usually associated with poor management (Jordan, 1990). Flock egg peritonitis outbreaks are often accompanied by cannibalism and vent pecking. Multiple etiologic factors have been ascribed to egg peritonitis problem. However, Escherichia coli is often incriminated as one of the etiologic agents of egg peritonitis (Hofstad et al., 1984) colibacillosis, coligranuloma, Hjarre\'s disease, salphangitis, synovitis, omphilitis and air sac disease in pre- and- laying hens. Other organisms frequently involved are Staphylococci and Streptococci spp (Jordan, 1990). Egg peritonitis and related effects are responsible for major economic losses to poultry industry (Hofstad et al., 1984). Economic losses resulting from mortality and egg losses were recorded in the flock under consideration. These were due to egg peritonitis, impaction and mortality in laying hens which were otherwise in good bodily condition and had full crops. The mortality was sudden with no premonitory signs except when accompanied by cannibalism and vent pecking. In this article clinico-pathological report on egg peritonitis and impaction in flock of commercial laying hens is presented and assessment of causal factors and control measures are highlighted. Keywords : Egg peritonitis, Colisepticemia, Vent pecking, E. coli , Laying hens Nigerian Veterinary Journal Vol. 28 (3) 2007 pp. 56-58

Association between vent pecking and fluctuating asymmetry, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and tonic immobility duration in chickens

The purpose of the present study was to analyze the relationship between incidence of vent pecking, fluctuating asymmetry, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and tonic immobility duration in chickens. The experiment (140 birds in three different replicates) measured the fluctuating asymmetry of several traits (middle toe length, leg length, wing length, wattle length, and leg width), the heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and the tonic immobility duration in 20-week-old pullets of five Spanish breeds of chickens (Blue Andaluza, Quail Castellana, White-faced Spanish, Red-barred Vasca, and Birchen Leonesa), and a White Leghorn population, with and without evidence of suffering from vent pecking. The number of birds per breed was 20, 24, 12, 20, 18, and 46, respectively. There was a significant difference between vent pecked and non-vent pecked birds on the relative fluctuating asymmetry of middle toe length ( P < 0.05), the relative fluctuating asymmetry of birds who suffered from vent pecking being larger. The combined relative fluctuating asymmetry of the five traits approached levels of statistical significance ( P = 0.08). There was a significant difference ( P < 0.001) in heterophil to lymphocyte ratio and tonic immobility duration between vent pecked and non-vent pecked birds, the ratio being higher and the duration being longer in the group of birds that suffered from vent pecking. Thus, vent pecked birds were more asymmetrical, stressed and fearful than non-vent pecked birds, having increased relative fluctuating asymmetry, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio and tonic immobility duration. Differences were consistent across the breeds. Results indicate that vent pecking is associated with other measures of stress e.g. fluctuating asymmetry, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and tonic immobility duration.

Neurobiological Basis of Sensory Perception: Welfare Implications of Beak Trimming

The practice of beak trimming in the poultry industry occurs to prevent excessive body pecking, cannibalism, and to avoid feed wastage. To assess the welfare implications of the procedure, an emphasis of this paper has been placed on the anatomical structures that comprise the beak and mouth parts and a representation of the structures removed following beak trimming. Five animal welfare concerns regarding the procedure have been addressed, including the following: loss of normal beak function, short-term pain and temporary debilitation, tongue and nostril damage, neuromas and scar tissue, and long-term and phantom limb pain. Because all of the concerns involve the nervous system, the current knowledge of the avian somatosensory system was summarized. The critical components include touch, pain, and thermal receptors in the buccal cavity and bill, the trigeminal system, and neural projections mapped to the pallium (cortical-like tissue in the avian forebrain). At the present time, a need remains to continue the practice of beak trimming in the poultry industry to prevent head, feather, and vent pecking in some lines of birds. The procedure, however, should involve conservative trimming and be limited to young birds. Importantly, data show that removing 50% or less of the beak of chicks can prevent the formation of neuromas and allow regeneration of keratinized tissue to prevent deformed beaks and therefore positively affect the quality of life of birds during their lifetime.

A cross-sectional study of the prevalence of vent pecking in laying hens in alternative systems and its associations with feather pecking, management and disease

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate associations between vent pecking (VP) and management in laying hens in alternative systems and to compare the results with those from the feather pecking (FP) analysis using data collected in the same study [Vet. Rec. 147 (2000) 233]. The data were derived from a postal questionnaire carried out on commercial flocks in Great Britain in 1998. A total of 637 questionnaires were sent out to farmers and producer groups and, after two reminders, the final response rate was 51.5%. Of 198 respondents, 36.9% of the farmers reported that vent pecking had occurred in the last depopulated flock and 33.3% had both vent pecking and feather pecking. The outcome variable, vent pecking after point of lay, was compared with exposures significant at P=0.05 in univariate statistics in a backward elimination logistic regression model. The final model contained four factors that increased the risk of vent pecking: dim light to encourage the use of nest boxes, diet changed three or more times during the laying period, the use of hanging bell drinkers and onset of lay before 20 weeks of age. The first three factors in this model were also significant factors that increased the risk of feather pecking in a logistic regression model developed by Green et al. [Vet. Rec. 147 (2000) 233]. The results indicate that vent pecking and feather pecking may share common environmental risk factors in commercial flocks.

Differential effects of increased stocking density, mediated by increased flock size, on feather pecking and aggression in laying hens

Six flocks of laying hens were housed in percheries at each of four stocking densities (6, 14, 22 or 30 birds m −2) from 14 to 30 weeks of age. Stocking density was manipulated by changes in flock size (72, 168, 264 or 368 birds) within percheries of the same floor and height dimensions. The pecking behaviour of birds was observed directly at 15, 22 and 30 weeks of age, and corrected for the number of birds in view. Egg production was recorded at 23 and 27 weeks of age, and plumage condition was scored at 30 weeks of age. At 23 weeks of age, egg production was greater at 6 birds m −2 than at other stocking densities. The plumage condition of the birds was best at 6 birds m −2 and worsened with increased flock size and stocking density. The behavioural observations suggested that this was due to an increase in mild feather pecking with increased flock size and stocking density. Mild feather pecking increased with bird age and was most frequently observed on the perchery floor although, at higher flock sizes and stocking densities, it also occurred on the perches. Severe feather pecking was infrequent, especially at the lower flock sizes and stocking densities, but was most likely to occur near the nest boxes. Vent pecking was extremely rare. Aggressive pecking was most common in the smaller flocks at the lowest stocking densities, possibly because these birds attempted to form social hierarchies. Birds in the larger flocks at higher densities appeared to adopt non-social, non-aggressive behavioural strategies.

Feather pecking and cannibalism in a caged layer flock.

1. The progress of feather pecking and cannibalism was recorded from hatching to end of lay in a flock of caged layers and the influence of group size, floor area allowance and cage tier upon the incidence of these activities during lay assessed. 2. The largest group suffered more cannibalism and feather pecking than smaller groups, floor area allowance and tier being less important factors. 3. A significant trend was found for one death from cannibalism to be followed by more in the same cage.4. It was concluded that feather pecking and cannibalism are separate phenomena, although the same cage conditions increased the incidence of both. 5. Cannibalism may be divided into vent pecking and cannibalism affecting other parts of the body, the former is independent of feather pecking and the latter, though usually preceded by feather pecking, is only indirectly associated with it.