Vehicle Impoundment Research Articles

Evaluation of the Victorian Safe Driving Program (SDP) for Hoon Drivers

This study aimed to determine whether the Safe Driving Program (SDP), a behaviour change program ordered by the courts operating in Victoria, Australia, was successful in reducing the offending and crashes by hoon drivers. A sample of 3,324 hoon drivers who completed the SDP were compared with 1,063 hoon drivers who were ordered to complete the program but failed to do so. These two groups were also compared with a third group consisting of 30,678 hoon drivers who, for various reasons, had not been ordered to complete the SDP. Longitudinal group comparisons were made regarding overall, hoon and serious offending, as well as the number of crashes, fatalities and serious injuries and the proportion of offenders receiving bans and vehicle impoundments. Generalised Estimating Equations were used for this purpose, providing estimates of group differences. It was found that statistically significant benefits were obtained through the placement of SDP orders. However, differences between the offenders that completed their SDP order and those that failed to complete their SDP order were not always as expected. Reasons for this are explained and implications for the program, policies and penalties are discussed. No changes are recommended for current impoundment and SDP arrangements.

The effectiveness of regulations preventing alcohol-related road traffic crashes and fatalities in the European Union countries

Introduction: This article addresses the impact of policy measures on the number of alcohol-related crashes and fatalities in European Union countries. In particular, it assesses (1) whether mild or severe penalty measures should be used to reduce the number of crashes and fatalities caused by alcohol; and (2) whether alcoholic beverages should be treated differently or proportionally to their alcohol content. Methods: This study analyzed the number of alcohol-related crashes and fatalities in 24 European Union countries between 2002 and 2014. The methodology involved fixed-effects panel models, models with instrumental variables, the Hausman–Taylor model, and seemingly unrelated regressions (SUR). SUR improve the results of coefficient estimates when the data are not complete. Results: The results of the SUR indicated that vehicle impoundment, community service, and alcolocks correlate with lower crashes, while detention correlates with lower fatalities. Furthermore, a higher alcohol content in beverages is positively associated with fatalities and negatively associated with the number of crashes. Conclusions: Mild and harsh measures for preventing alcohol-related crashes and fatalities differ in effectiveness; therefore, they should be used simultaneously. Blood alcohol concentration limits were found to be an ineffective tool for preventing crashes and fatalities under the influence of alcohol. Practical implications: The regulatory restrictions on different types of alcohol should be stricter for hard alcohol (especially spirits) and lower for low-alcohol beverages, such as beer, if fewer fatalities are preferred to fewer crashes.

Are Countries' Drink-Driving Policies Associated With Harms Involving Another Driver's Impairment?

International drink-driving policy research generally focuses on aggregate outcomes (e.g., rates of crashes, fatalities) without emphasizing secondhand alcohol-related vehicular harms. In contrast, we investigate associations between drink-driving policies and harms involving another driver's impairment. Alcohol's harms to others (AHTO) survey data from 12 countries (analytic N=29,616) were linked to national alcohol policy data from the World Health Organization. We examined separately associations of two 12-month driving-related AHTOs (passenger with an impaired driver; vehicular crash involving someone else's drink driving) with 3 national drinking-driving policies-legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limits, use of random breath testing, use of sobriety checkpoints, and comprehensive penalties for drink-driving (community service, detention, fines, ignition interlocks, license suspension/revocation, mandatory alcohol treatment, vehicle impoundment, and penalty point system), plus 2 alcohol tax variables (having excise taxes and value-added tax [VAT] rate). Multilevel logistic regression addressed clustering of individuals within countries and subnational regions, while adjusting for individuals' gender, age, marital status, risky drinking, and regional drinking culture (% male risky drinkers in sub-national region). Controlling for national-, regional-, and individual-level covariates, comprehensive penalties were significantly and negatively associated with both outcomes; other vehicular policy variables were not significantly associated with either outcome. A society's VAT rate was negatively associated with riding with a drunk driver. Regional male drinking culture was positively associated with riding with an impaired driver, but was not significantly associated with being in a vehicular crash due to someone else's drinking. In both models, being male, being younger, and engaging in risky drinking oneself each were positively associated with vehicular harms due to someone else's drinking. Although results are associational and not causal, comprehensive penalties may be promising policies for mitigating driving-related harms due to another drinker. Higher VAT rate might reduce riding with a drunk driver.

Effectiveness of vehicle impoundment for high-range speeding offences in Victoria, Australia

Speeding behaviour has been shown to account for a large number of deaths and serious injuries on Australian roads. Vehicle impoundment is one countermeasure which has been implemented to discourage drivers from engaging in high-range speeding. Despite this countermeasure being used as a sanction in all Australian jurisdictions to combat high-range speeding offences, limited research has examined the effectiveness of vehicle impoundments in Australia. The purpose of this research was to examine the effectiveness of vehicle impoundment for high-range speeding offences on subsequent offence and crash rates. Data were collected from drivers with an eligible excessive speeding offence in Victoria, Australia between 1 July 2006 and 31 December 2014. During this time, there were 17,440 impoundment eligible offences, 6,883 (41.8 %) of which resulted in vehicle impoundment. The analysis revealed that drivers who had a vehicle impounded were more likely to be male, younger, hold a probationary licence, and to have a court offence. In terms of the effectiveness of vehicle impoundment, among high-range offenders, re-offence rates for those who had their vehicle impounded were statistically significantly lower for all licence periods compared with offenders who did not have their vehicle impounded. There was evidence of an effect of impoundment on reducing speeding re-offence rates during the impoundment period as well as some evidence that the impact of licence suspension was greater for those who experienced impoundment. Given that vehicle impoundment is a sanction which aims to discourage and/or incapacitate drivers from engaging in on-road risk taking behaviour, in this case high-range speeding behaviour, the longer-term positive effects of this sanction may assist with the on-going effort to reduce on-road risk taking behaviours.

Speeding and impaired driving in fatal crashes—Results from in-depth investigations

Objective The aim of the study was to identify typical patterns of risk factors among speeding and impaired drivers involved in fatal crashes and to suggest countermeasures. Method Results from in-depth investigations of 1,501 fatal passenger car crashes that occurred in Norway from 2005 to 2015 and involved 1,949 passenger cars are summarized. Relationships between speeding (excessive speed, EXC, or inappropriate speed, INAP); driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol (ALC), drugs (DRUG), or both (MIX); and other driver-, crash-, vehicle-, and road-related variables were investigated. Results Speeding and DUI drivers have in common that they are more often male, unbelted, unlicensed, driving old cars, and involved in single-vehicle crashes under low-volume conditions (nighttime, weekend, low-volume roads). They are also less often fatigued, ill, or suicidal. EXC and ALC drivers are on average younger and they generally show more high-risk behavior than INAP, DRUG, and MIX drivers. In crashes with pedestrians/cyclists and crashes on slippery roads or in winter, INAP drivers are overrepresented and EXC and DUI drivers are underrepresented. Among DRUG and MIX drivers there may be differences according to the type of substance. Conclusions Those drivers who show most types of high-risk behaviors, especially EXC and ALC drivers, are less likely to respond to measures relying on voluntary behavior changes, such as recommended speed, speed warnings, or classical enforcement, although such measures may be effective for INAP and some DRUG drivers. To change the behavior of EXC and ALC drivers, more restrictive measures are called for, such as non-overridable intelligent speed adaptation, vehicle impoundment, or Alcolock.

The increasing role of provincial administrative sanctions in Canadian impaired driving enforcement

Objective: The object of this study is to document the recent shift in Canadian impaired driving enforcement from federal criminal proceedings to provincial administrative sanctions, examine the deterrent impact of these new administrative measures, and review the numerous legal challenges that they have generated.Methods: This article highlights the expanded role of provincial administrative license suspensions (ALSs) and vehicle impoundments (AVIs) in Canadian impaired driving enforcement, summarizes the evidence of their deterrent impact, and discusses the implications of the related Canadian case law.Results: Provincial administrative sanctions have been used increasingly, both to supplement and replace federal impaired driving charges. Recent experience in British Columbia and Alberta illustrates the potential traffic safety benefits of enacting comprehensive impairment-related roadside administrative measures. In 2010, British Columbia enacted a package of roadside administrative sanctions, which included mandatory ALSs, AVIs, monetary penalties, license-reinstatement fees, and remedial programs. A study conducted two years later reported that alcohol-related fatal crashes had fallen by 52%. Alberta enacted similar provisions, and saw alcohol-related fatalities decrease by 46% within six months of the legislation coming into force. Although effective, these new roadside sanctions generated a flurry of legal challenges. The cases indicate that while the provinces have broad leeway, there are legal limits on their authority to impose onerous administrative sanctions on drivers, particularly if they are based on a single roadside alcohol or drug-screening test.Conclusions: With careful drafting, the provinces can enact cost-effective roadside administrative sanctions that have been shown to significantly reduce impaired driving deaths and injuries. The legality of any administrative sanction will likely depend on its severity, the reliability of the test or evidence upon which it is based, and the extent to which the driver has a meaningful opportunity to challenge the decision.

The impact of state laws on motor vehicle fatality rates, 1999-2015.

Motor vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities have been declining while states passed various legislation targeting driver behaviors. This study assesses the impact of state laws on MVC fatality rates to determine which laws were effective. Publically available data were collected on driver-related motor vehicle laws, law strengths, enactment years, and numbers of verified-trauma centers. Prospective data on crash characteristics and MVC fatalities 16 years or older from Fatality Analysis Reporting System 1999 to 2015 (n = 850) were obtained. Generalize Linear Autoregressive Modeling was used to assess the relative contribution of state laws to the crude MVC fatality rate while controlling for other factors. Lowering the minimum blood alcohol content (BAC) was associated with largest declines for all ages, especially the older cohorts: 16 years to 20 years (B = 0.23; p < 0.001), 21 years to 55 years (B = 1.7; p < 0.001); 56 years to 65 years (B = 3.2; p < 0.001); older than 65 years (B = 4.1; p < 0.001). Other driving under the influence laws were also significant. Per se BAC laws accompanying a reduced BAC further contributed to declines in crude fatality rates: 21 years to 55 years (B = -0.13; p < 0.001); older than 65 years (B = -0.17; p < 0.05). Driving under the influence laws enhancing the penalties, making revocation automatic, or targeting social hosts had mixed effects by age. Increased enforcement, mandatory education, vehicle impoundment, interlock devices, and underage alcohol laws showed no association with declining mortality rates. Red light camera and seatbelt laws were associated with declines in mortality rates for all ages except for older than 65 years cohort, but speed camera laws had no effect. Graduated Driver License laws were associated with declines for 16 years to 21 years (B = -0.06; p < 0.001) only. Laws targeting specific risks (elderly, motorcycles, marijuana) showed no effect on declining MVC mortality rates during the study period. States have passed a wide variety of laws with varying effectiveness. A few key laws, specifically laws lowering allowable BAC, implementing red light cameras, and mandating seatbelt use significantly reduced MVC mortality rates from 1999 to 2015. Simply adding more laws/penalties may not equate directly to lives saved. Continued research on state laws will better inform policy makers to meet evolving public health needs in the management of MVC fatalities. Epidemiological, Level III.

Estimating the effectiveness of different environmental law enforcement policies on illegal C&D waste dumping in Israel

Illegal dumping of construction and demolition (C&D) waste is a major concern for environmental policy-makers. Three different environmental law enforcement policies, aimed at the reduction of illegal C&D waste dumping, are enforced in Israel. These policies include fines (F), vehicle impoundment (V), and criminal indictment (I) by the court. Although, the scope of illegal C&D waste dumping in Israel appears to decline, little is known which of the above policies has been effective in combating the phenomenon. In an attempt to answer this question, we use data on F-V-I instances, recorded between July 2007 and December 2016, and compare them with monthly changes in the ratio between the amount of waste brought to authorized waste dumping sites and the estimated amount of C&D waste generated in the country each month. As the study shows, only the V-sanction was found to be significantly affecting the ratio (t = 3.083; p < 0.01), while the effect of other policy was found insignificant. We explain low efficiency of other law enforcement policies by relatively small fines imposed on the offenders, long court proceedings, combined with a relatively low chance of being caught. By contrast, the V-sanction may be more effective because it results in immediate and severe economic losses to the offenders, causing C&D waste transporters to haul their load to authorized sites. As we argue, for an environmental enforcement policy to be effective, it should be adequate to the severity of the offense and applied swiftly.

Does the inclusion of vehicle impoundment in provincial short-term administrative driver’s license suspension programs reduce total and alcohol-related fatal collisions in Canada?

Objectives: To determine (1) whether the implementation of vehicle impoundment as part of provincial short-term administrative driver licensing suspension (ADLS) programs significantly reduced total and alcohol-related collision fatalities, and (2) if provinces with vehicle impoundment as part of their short-term ADLS programs see greater reductions in total and alcohol-related fatal collisions when compared to provinces without a vehicle impoundment law.Methods: Data on monthly total and alcohol-related fatal collisions from January 2005 to December 2016 are drawn from British Columbia (BC), Alberta (AB), Saskatchewan (SK), Manitoba (MB) and Ontario (ON). Changepoint time series analysis of fatal crashes is employed to detect within-province differences after implementing short-term impoundment programs, and between province differences comparing provinces with short-term impoundment programs (BC, introduced October 2010; AB, introduced July 2012; and SK, introduced July 2014) and those without (ON and MB). Outcome measures are the monthly per capita total and alcohol-related fatal collisions.Results: A significant reduction in per-capita alcohol-related fatal crashes was observed in British Columbia (−47.4%) in the period following the adoption of vehicle impoundment in their short-term ADLS. A significant decrease was also observed in Alberta (−37.5%), though this trend began prior to policy change; no significant effect was observed in per capita alcohol-related fatal crashes rates in Saskatchewan (−6.1%) in the two years following the introduction of vehicle impoundment. Ontario and Manitoba, two provinces without mandatory vehicle impoundment laws, also experienced significant reductions in per-capita alcohol-related fatal crashes between 2005 and 2016 (−36.4% and −35%, respectively).Conclusions: While mandatory vehicle impoundment programs for driving in the “warn” range (0.05%–0.08% BAC) have shown success in reducing fatal crashes in British Columbia, similar reductions in two other provinces with short-term vehicle impoundment were not observed. Moreover, large reductions in fatal crashes were observed in two provinces without vehicle impoundment as part of their short-term ADLS programs. Collectively, these findings suggest that vehicle impoundment, alone, has limited impact on fatal crash rates and that other factors help to explain the observed trends. Further analysis of new vehicle impoundment programs is warranted.

A Comparison of International Drunk-Driving Policies and the Role of Drinking Patterns

Effective drunk-driving policies are not adopted consistently in many countries. To understand how drinking behaviors influence national drunk-driving policymaking, the associations between drunk-driving policies and country-level drinking volumes and patterns were examined. Data for 194 countries were obtained from the WHO 2012 Global Information System on Alcohol and Health. Country-level drinking behaviors were measured using average drinking volumes and patterns of drinking scores based on six attributes of risky drinking. Drunk-driving policies were categorized into preemptive measures (random breath testing, breath alcohol concentration limits for driving a vehicle, and sobriety checkpoints), penalties (community service, short- or long-term detention, fines, suspension or revocation of license, and vehicle impoundment), mandatory treatment, and ignition interlock. Data analysis was conducted in 2017. The percentages of each policy adoption were examined in countries with different drinking behaviors. The internal consistencies of preemptive measures were calculated using Cronbach's α. A structural equation model was established to examine the associations between drinking behaviors and drunk-driving policy categories, after adjusting for national income levels and general alcohol policies. Mandatory treatment and preemptive measures were less commonly adopted than penalties were. The adoption of preemptive measures had a low consistency level, and the consistency level decreased with drinking pattern riskiness. Risky drinking patterns were negatively associated with mandatory treatment policy. Drinking patterns are associated with national drunk-driving policymaking. Accessible medical treatment and comprehensive preemptive measures should be advocated in countries with risky drinking patterns.

Living at the Intersection: Laws &amp; Vehicle Residency

When faced with the possibility of living entirely without shelter, people experiencing homelessness are turning in greater numbers to the last refuge they have available: their vehicles. This brief examines vehicle residency throughout Washington State, including the unique struggles faced by vehicle residents and the increasingly punitive response by local municipalities. The findings reveal that cities both embrace direct criminalization of vehicle residency as well as turn a blind eye to the disproportionate impact of traffic penalties — including both fines and vehicle impoundment — on a population that has no reasonable alternatives.

Providing driver’s licenses to unauthorized immigrants in California improves traffic safety

The integration of immigrants presents a major challenge for policymakers in the United States. In an effort to improve integration, several US states recently have implemented laws that provide driver's licenses to unauthorized immigrants. These new laws have sparked widespread debate, but we lack evidence on the traffic safety impact of these policies. We examine the short-term effects of the largest-scale policy shift, California's Assembly Bill 60 (AB60), under which more than 600,000 licenses were issued in the first year of implementation in 2015 alone. We find that, contrary to concerns voiced by opponents of the law, AB60 has had no discernible short-term effect on the number of accidents. The law primarily allowed existing unlicensed drivers to legalize their driving. We also find that, although AB60 had no effect on the rate of fatal accidents, it did decrease the rate of hit and run accidents, suggesting that the policy reduced fears of deportation and vehicle impoundment. Hit and run behaviors often delay emergency assistance, increase insurance premiums, and leave victims with significant out of pocket expenses. Overall, the results suggest that AB60 provides an example of how states can facilitate the integration of immigrants while creating positive externalities for the communities in which they live.

Vehicle impoundments improve drinking and driving licence suspension outcomes: Large-scale evidence from Ontario

Although vehicle impoundment has become a common sanction for various driving offences, large-scale evaluations of its effectiveness in preventing drinking and driving recidivism are almost non-existent in the peer-reviewed literature. One reason is that impoundment programs have typically been introduced simultaneously with other countermeasures, rendering it difficult to disentangle any observed effects. Previous studies of impoundment effectiveness conducted when such programs were implemented in isolation have typically been restricted to small jurisdictions, making high-quality evaluation difficult. In contrast, Ontario’s “long-term” and “seven-day” impoundment programs were implemented in relative isolation, but with tight relationships to already existing drinking and driving suspensions. In this work, we used offence data produced by Ontario’s population of over 9 million licensed drivers to perform interrupted time series analysis on drinking and driving recidivism and on rates of driving while suspended for drinking and driving. Our results demonstrate two key findings: (1) impoundment, or its threat, improves compliance with drinking and driving licence suspensions; and (2) addition of impoundment to suspension reduces drinking and driving recidivism, possibly through enhanced suspension compliance.

Evaluation of the general deterrence capacity of recently implemented (2009–2010) low and Zero BAC requirements for drivers in Ontario

The number of injuries and fatalities associated with drinking and driving continues to decline in the province of Ontario. However, this behavior remains as one of the major contributors to collision-related injuries and fatalities. Few large-scale studies of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) <0.08% limits exist in the literature, necessitating additional investigation. Here we evaluate the general deterrent effectiveness of three Ontario countermeasures implemented during 2009 and 2010, two of which impose lower allowable BAC on drivers in the province. Using ARIMA-based interrupted time-series analysis we found that Warn-range sanctions, which include immediate roadside suspension for the previously un-targeted BAC range of 0.05–0.08%, were associated with a 17% decrease in the number of people injured or killed in drinking and driving collisions (relative to the number injured or killed in other collisions). Similarly, we found that Zero BAC requirements newly applied to young drivers (<22y.o.) were associated with a reduction in the numbers of two other dissimilar drinking and driving sanctions received by young drivers (relative to the number of these sanctions received by non-young drivers). A roadside seven-day vehicle impoundment for BAC>0.08%, which was added to an already existing roadside 90-day license suspension, was not found to produce general deterrence. Taken together, our results suggest that sanctions which target previously untargeted groups, specifically via lower BAC requirements, are effective as general deterrents against drinking and driving.

Evaluating the effect of vehicle impoundment policy on illegal construction and demolition waste dumping: Israel as a case study

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste dumped alongside roads and in open areas is a major source of soil and underground water pollution. Since 2006, Israeli ministry for environmental protection enacted a policy of vehicle impoundment (VI) according to which track drivers caught while dumping C&D waste illegally have their vehicles impounded. The present study attempted to determine whether the VI policy was effective in increasing the waste hauling to authorized landfill sites, thus limiting the number of illegal unloads of C&D waste at unauthorized landfill sites and in open areas. During the study, changes in the ratio between the monthly amount of C&D waste brought to authorized landfills sites and the estimated total amount of C&D waste generated in different administrative districts of Israel were examined, before and after the enactment of the 2006 VI policy. Short questionnaires were also distributed among local track drivers in order to determine the degree of awareness about the policy in question and estimate its deterrence effects. According to the study’s results, in the district of Haifa, in which the VI policy was stringently enacted, the ratio between C&D waste, dumped in authorized landfill sites, and the total amount of generated C&D waste, increased, on the average, from 20% in January 2004 to 35% in October 2009, with the effect attributed to the number of vehicle impoundments being highly statistically significant (t=2.324; p<0.05). By contrast, in the Jerusalem and Southern districts, in which the VI policy was less stringently enforced, the effect of VI on the above ratio was found to be insignificant (p>0.1). The analysis of the questionnaires, distributed among the local truck drivers further indicated that the changes observed in the district of Haifa are not coincident and appeared to be linked to the VI policy’s enactment. In particular, 62% of the truck drivers, participated in the survey, were aware of the policy and 47% of them personally knew a driver whose vehicle was impounded. Furthermore, the drivers estimated the relative risk of being caught for unloading C&D waste in unauthorized sites, on the average, as high as 67%, which is likely to become a deterrent on its own. Our conclusion is that the VI policy appears to have a deterring effect on truck drivers, by encouraging them to haul C&D waste to authorized landfill sites. As we suggest, the research methodology implemented in the study and its results may help policy makers in other regions and countries, which experience similar environment enforcement problem, to analyze policy responses.

Estimating the over-involvement of suspended, revoked, and unlicensed drivers as at-fault drivers in California fatal crashes

Introduction and MethodQuasi-induced exposure analysis was used to estimate annual fatal crash involvement rates for validly licensed, suspended or revoked (S/R), and unlicensed drivers in California from 1987 through 2009 using fatal crash data obtained from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Fatality Analysis Reporting System and crash culpability determinations from the California Highway Patrol's Statewide Integrated Traffic Records System. ResultsAlthough there was some year-to-year fluctuation in the annual estimates, S/R and unlicensed drivers were over-involved as at-fault drivers in fatal crashes during every year of the 23-year time period relative to validly licensed drivers. The fatal crash involvement ratios combined across all years were 0.86 for validly licensed drivers, 2.23 for S/R drivers, and 2.34 for unlicensed drivers. Hence, compared to validly licensed drivers, the odds of being at-fault for a fatal crash were 160% higher for S/R drivers (involvement ratio=2.60) and 173% higher for unlicensed drivers (involvement ratio=2.73). The excess risks of S/R and unlicensed drivers are somewhat lower than estimates found in a prior study using the same technique, but the results nonetheless provide evidence that S/R and unlicensed drivers are much more hazardous on the road than are validly licensed drivers and emphasize the importance of using strong countermeasures—including vehicle impoundment—to reduce their high crash risk. These findings support interventions to help reduce driving among S/R and unlicensed drivers.

Finishing What Gant Started: Protecting Motorists' Privacy Rights by Restricting Vehicle Impoundments and Inventory Searches

As a consequence of New York v. Belton, law enforcement automatically searched vehicles following the arrest of vehicle occupants. In Arizona v. Gant, the Court realized that the police discretion, granted by Belton, endangered motorists’ privacy rights. To resolve this threat to privacy, the Gant Court narrowed the breadth of police discretion — permitting searches under two circumstances: first, if, at the time of the search, the arrestee had access to the area to be searched, or, second, if the officer had reason to believe evidence pertaining to the arrest would be found in the vehicle.Although Gant curbed certain unconstitutional searches of vehicles, another Supreme Court decision, Colorado v. Bertine, created other loopholes that permit law enforcement to invade motorists’ privacy rights. The discretion emanating from Bertine allows police officers to circumvent the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement to conduct post-impoundment vehicle inventory searches. And, as a result, courts struggle to balance the discretion with motorists’ Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures.The Court justified the Bertine decision based on the theory that the exercise of discretion helped protect the public and police, preserve evidence, and minimize police liability. However, as Justice Marshall emphasized in his Bertine dissent, many circumstances present alternatives to impoundment or inventory searches that would eliminate these governmental concerns.To properly address these concerns while protecting motorists’ privacy, the Court should consider adopting a new test that resembles a Gant-like narrowing of Belton. This two-part, two-pronged test evaluates the constitutionality of both impoundments and inventory searches.With regard to impoundments, this test, first, asks if the impoundment practices were reasonable under the circumstances, and, second, conducted pursuant to standard operating procedures. With regard to inventory searches, the Court could suggest that motorists be permitted to waive the search, and, if such a waiver is not made, then the search must fully comply with existing standard operating procedure.Under this test the Court can finish what Gant started in its efforts to reprioritize motorists’ privacy rights over deference to police discretion. With this test’s restrictions, impoundments and inventory searches will be properly constrained by reasonableness and compliance with standardized procedure.

An Evaluation of Immediate Roadside Prohibitions for Drinking Drivers in British Columbia: Findings from Roadside Surveys

Objective: The purpose was to determine the impact of new immediate roadside prohibitions (IRPs) for drinking drivers introduced in British Columbia in September 2010 as assessed by random roadside surveys of alcohol and drug use among nighttime drivers. Methods: Two roadside surveys were conducted prior to and following the introduction of IRPs. Drivers were randomly selected from the traffic stream in 5 cities and asked to provide a breath sample to determine alcohol content and a sample of oral fluid to be tested for the presence of psychoactive drugs. The survey was conducted between the hours of 9:00 p.m. and 3:00 a.m. on Wednesday through Saturday nights in June 2010 and again in June 2012. Results: Driving after drinking decreased significantly following the introduction of IRPs. In particular, the percentage of drivers with blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) over 80 mg/dL decreased by 59 percent; drivers with BACs of at least 50 mg/dL decreased by 44 percent. The decreases in drinking and driving were not restricted to specific subgroups of drivers but were universal across age groups, sex, and communities. The results also revealed a changing pattern of drinking of driving. For example, the typical pattern of increased drinking and driving on weekend nights was not observed and the prevalence of drinking drivers on the road during late night hours was less than half that found in 2010. The prevalence of drug use by drivers in 2012 did not change from the levels reported in 2010. Conclusions: The IRP program combined immediate short-term roadside suspensions with vehicle impoundment and monetary penalties to enhance the swiftness, certainty, and perceived severity of sanctions for drinking and driving. The introduction of these measures was associated with a substantial reduction in the prevalence of driving with a BAC over 50 mg/dL and driving with a BAC over 80 mg/dL.

Vehicle impoundment regulations as a means for reducing traffic-violations and road accidents in Israel

The vehicle impoundment sanction in Israel is applicable to several violations, and authorizes police officers to impound a vehicle for period of 30 days, in addition to license suspension. This study examined the effects of vehicle impoundment on traffic-violations and road accidents in Israel, using both subjective and objective measures. A telephone survey was administered to 378 impounded drivers, examining their knowledge and support of the impoundment penalty, as well as the impoundment's effect on their daily life and subsequent driving behaviors. Survey results indicated most impounded drivers did not recognize the violations to which impoundment applies. Respondents described the impoundment experience as one, which interfered with a variety of daily life aspects, and eventually lead them to the adoption of safer driving behaviors. Additionally, data analysis of police records was performed on 1549 impounded drivers and 1354 controls with matching violations performed prior to the application of the impoundment regulation, comparing accident and traffic-violations involvement in the subsequent year. Results indicated that impoundment failed to yield a significant effect over subsequent accident involvement, compared to previous sanctions. A comparison of subsequent traffic-violations indicated lower rates of violations following impoundment as compared with previous sanctions. Specifically, drivers whose vehicle was impounded were less likely to commit traffic violations in the following year than drivers subjected to other sanctions. The results are explained according to psychological behavioral theories of punishment effectiveness. These findings provide further support for impoundment as a deterrent for several traffic-violations.

O significado da compra: desejo, demanda e o comércio do sexo

Feministas e outros acadêmicos vêm debatendo teoricamente o que exatamente é comprado numa transação de prostituição e se o sexo pode ser "um serviço como qualquer outro", mas raramente lidaram empiricamente com essas questões. Este artigo se baseia em observações de campo e entrevistas com clientes masculinos de trabalhadoras do sexo comercial e com agentes do Estado encarregados de regulá-las para investigar os significados dados a diferentes tipos de trocas sexuais comerciais. Manifestados por detenção e re-educação de clientes, apreensão de veículos, leis mais estritas sobre a prostituição de menores e a posse de pornografia com crianças, recentes esforços do Estado para problematizar a sexualidade masculina em todos os EUA e Europa Ocidental se desenvolveram ao lado de uma ética de consumo sexual descontrolada, evidenciada pela imensa demanda por pornografia, clubes de strip-tease, "lap-dancing"¹, acompanhantes, sexo por telefone e "turismo sexual" em países em desenvolvimento. Ao situar a troca sexual comercial dentro do contexto mais amplo das transformações pósindustriais da cultura e da sexualidade, podemos começar a desvendar esse paradoxo.