Conservation Of Vegetation Research Articles

Human‐Climate Coupled Changes in Vegetation Community Complexity of China Since 1980s

AbstractVegetation community complexity is a critical factor influencing terrestrial ecosystem stability. China, the country leading the world in vegetation greening resulting from human activities, has experienced dramatic changes in vegetation community composition during the past 30 years. However, how China's vegetation community complexity varies spatially and temporally remains unclear. Here, we examined the spatial pattern of China's vegetation community complexity and its temporal changes from the 1980s to 2015 using two vegetation maps of China as well as more than half a million field samples. Spatially, China's vegetation community complexity distribution is primarily dominated by elevation, although temperature and precipitation can be locally more influential than elevation when they become the factors limiting plant growth. Temporally, China's vegetation community complexity shows a significant decreasing trend during the past 30 years, despite the observed vegetation greening trend. Prevailing climate warming across China exhibits a significant negative correlation with the decrease in vegetation community complexity, but this correlation varies with biogeographical regions. The intensity of human activities have an overall negative influence on vegetation community complexity, but vegetation conservation and restoration efforts can have a positive effect on maintaining vegetation composition complexity, informing the critical role of vegetation management policies in achieving the sustainable development goal.

Data-driven approach for 2D shoreline, and 3D volumetric change detection analysis: a case study for Jupiter inlet lighthouse outstanding natural area

Coastal areas are constantly changing and are influenced by a variety of variables, including environmental, ecological, geological, and anthropological factors. The plethora of coastal change has created substantial challenges for coastal land infrastructures, animal habitat, vegetation conservation, and monitoring. It is important to track these changes, monitor, predict, and preserve the future of coastal areas. Shoreline mapping has mostly concentrated on two-dimensional (2D) distance changes along the coast due to the lack of coastal elevational data and the precise information required to construct the three-dimensional (3D) surface. Modern technology has covered the gaps by developing a range of sensors and algorithms for data analysis on 3D coastal erosion and accretion changes throughout the beach topography, which has become crucial. The ultimate goal is to develop a cost-effective mapping procedure for an area that includes a high-resolution mapping system that abstracts evidence of coastal areas for long-term 2D change rates from 1953 to 2020 and short-term 3D volumetric changes of sand erosion and accretion rates from 2018 to 2020. This would be accomplished through Unmanned Aircraft Systems Mapping, which employs digital photogrammetry principles including comprehensive geospatial information systems spatial data and linear regression analysis to investigate massive quantities of data. The feasibility of this methodology was applied to the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse Outstanding Natural Area in Jupiter, Florida, a study coastal area that had receded almost 27 m in the last 67 years. The outcomes of a short-term coastal analysis quantify the amount of soil erosion and accretion that occurred along the shore over two years as a result of rising sea levels. The long-term change analysis indicates how much sand was eroded each year as a result of several variables affecting shoreline changes, which will help the land management team in developing new sustainable policies for future coastal environmental conservation.

Temporal continuity and adjacent land use exert different effects on richness of grassland specialists and alien plants in semi‐natural grassland

AbstractAimsGrassland plant species diversity is affected by local, temporal and landscape environmental factors, but what is the relative importance of those factors? Understanding this is crucial for the effective conservation of grassland vegetation. We analyzed the factors affecting species richness to contribute to native species conservation and alien species management in grassland vegetation.LocationSemi‐natural grasslands in Shiroi City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan.MethodsThe species composition in 36 grasslands was surveyed in 2014. Plants were classified as native grassland specialist, other native or alien species. Generalized Linear Models (GLM) were developed, with the number of species in each plant type as the response variable and local (habitat area, use of mowing management), landscape (adjacent land use, connectivity to other grassland habitats) and temporal (period for which the grassland has been preserved from development, i.e., temporal continuity) factors as explanatory variables. Other GLM were developed with the presence/absence of each species as a response variable and three factors as explanatory variables.ResultsHabitat area, use of mowing management and temporal continuity were most important in explaining the number of grassland specialist species and had significant positive effects on their richness. Species‐based analysis identified a significant positive effect of temporal continuity on grassland specialist species. By contrast, habitat area and adjacent land use were most related to alien species richness. The number of alien species was high in grasslands adjacent to farmlands or roads.ConclusionsThe relative importance of temporal and spatial factors differs between native grassland specialists and alien species. Mowing is effective for the conservation of grassland specialists’ species diversity, particularly in historically old grasslands. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the invasion of alien species from adjacent residential or agricultural areas.

Spatiotemporal Variations of Chinese Terrestrial Ecosystems in Response to Land Use and Future Climate Change

Terrestrial ecosystems in China are threatened by land use and future climate change. Understanding the effects of these changes on vegetation and the climate-vegetation interactions is critical for vegetation preservation and mitigation. However, land-use impacts on vegetation are neglected in terrestrial ecosystems exploration, and a deep understanding of land-use impacts on vegetation dynamics is lacking. Additionally, few studies have examined the contribution of vegetation succession to changes in vegetation dynamics. To fill the above gaps in the field, the spatiotemporal distribution of terrestrial ecosystems under the current land use and climate baseline (1970–2000) was examined in this study using the Comprehensive Sequential Classification System (CSCS) model. Moreover, the spatiotemporal variations of ecosystems and their succession under future climate scenarios (the 2030s–2080s) were quantitatively projected and compared. The results demonstrated that under the current situation, vegetation without human disturbance was mainly distributed in high elevation regions and less than 10% of the national area. For future vegetation dynamics, more than 58% of tundra and alpine steppe would shrink. Semidesert would respond to climate change with an expansion of 39.49 × 104 km2, including the succession of the steppe to semidesert. Although some advancement of the temperate forest at the expense of substantial dieback of tundra and alpine steppe is expected to occur, this century would witness a considerable shrinkage of them, especially in RCP8.5, at approximately 55.06 × 104 km2. Overall, a warmer and wetter climate would be conducive to the occurrence and development of the CSCS ecosystems. These results offer new insights on the potential ecosystem response to land use and climate change over the Chinese domain, and on creating targeted policies for effective adaptation to these changes and implementation of ecosystem protection measures.

Biodiversity of riparian vegetation under a management gradient in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

Background: Rivers and their associated vegetation are considered highly complex natural systems representing high biodiversity areas that work as biological corridors. Nevertheless, riparian vegetation of the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR) has not been studied nor considered in the reserve’s management program. Questions: Which is the composition, structure, diversity, and state of conservation of the riparian vegetation of the MBBR? Study site and dates: The Senguio Microbasin, part of Sierra Chincua Priority Terrestrial Region, within the MBBR, in central México. 2016-2017. Methods: Using high-resolution imagery from 2014, we identified five joint categories in relation to the protection status (Core Zone, Buffer Zone, and Influence Area) and land use (conserved forest, highly disturbed forest, and farmland). We sampled three sites per category (N = 15) to analyze the composition, richness, and α- and β-diversity of the riparian communities. Results: We registered 108 species, 46 genera, and 18 families, of which 98 % are native and 2 % exotic. Richness and α-diversity were not significantly different among sites, but the composition and β-diversity showed significant differences depending on land use. The riparian vegetation is well conserved both in the Reserve´s Core and Buffer zones, and preserves high coverage, species richness, and individuals’ abundance. Conclusions: The riparian vegetation of the Senguio Microbasin hosts a biodiversity richness critical for the ecosystem’s health and evidences the relevance of considering the human use of the riparian systems to succeed in the conservation strategies.

How can structure and composition of Eucalyptus plantation landscape reduce leaf-cutting ants?

Leaf-cutting ants (Atta spp.) are the main Eucalyptus plantation pests that cause successive defoliation, and productivity losses might be significant. Thus, our objective was to evaluate the influence of vegetation composition and landscape structure on the occurrence of leaf-cutting ants in Eucalyptus spp. plantations neighboring areas of Atlantic Forest vegetation. We collected data on the occurrence of ants (Atta spp.) and the amount of loose soil in each ant colony. We calculated the landscape metrics for the area that we divided in landscape planning unit. We proceeded with information-theoretic approach to identify the best set of models with AICc criteria. We found that 81.1% of the ant colonies had an area of loose soil smaller than 1 m2, and the diversity of Eucalyptus ages, edges of Eucalyptus plantation, and conservation of native fragments have influence on ant occurrence and reduce their effects. So, an increase in vegetation conservation status, decrease of roads that lead to edges in Eucalyptus plantations, and adoption of age mosaics in production areas disrupts ant occurrence. In addition, better functional and structural conditions favor ecosystem services, such as soil and water conservation, through a reduction in the use of formicidal baits.

Assessing climate change impacts on Pacific salmon and trout using bioenergetics and spatiotemporal explicit river temperature predictions under varying riparian conditions.

Pacific salmon and trout populations are affected by timber harvest, the removal and alteration of riparian vegetation, and the resulting physical changes to water quality, temperature, and associated delivery of high-quality terrestrial prey. Juvenile salmon and trout growth, a key predictor of survival, is poorly understood in the context of current and future (climate-change mediated) conditions, with resource managers needing information on how land use will impact future river conditions for these commercially and culturally important species. We used the Heat Source water temperature modeling framework to develop a spatiotemporal model to assess how riparian canopy and vegetation preservation and addition could influence river temperatures under future climate predictions in a coastal river fed by a moraine-dammed lake: the Quinault River in Washington State. The model predicted higher water temperatures under future carbon emission projections, representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5, with varying magnitude based on different riparian vegetation scenarios. We used the daily average temperature output from these scenarios to predict potential juvenile fish growth using the Wisconsin bioenergetics model. A combination of riparian vegetation removal and continued high carbon emissions resulted in a predicted seven-day average daily maximum temperature (7DADM) increase of 1.7°C in the lower river by 2080; increases in riparian shading mitigate this 7DADM increase to only 0.9°C. Under the current thermal regime, bioenergetics modeling predicts juvenile fish lose weight in the lower river; this loss of potential growth worsens by an average of 20–83% in the lower river by 2080, increasing with the loss of riparian shading. This study assess the impact of riparian vegetation management on future thermal habitat for Pacific salmon and trout under warming climates and provide a useful spatially explicit modeling framework that managers can use to make decisions regarding riparian vegetation management and its mechanistic impact to water temperature and rearing juvenile fish.

Balancing ecosystem integrity and cultural values at sacred Lake Hora, Ethiopia: The need for conservation of wetland vegetation

AbstractAlthough macrophytes represent important habitats for the plankton communities of shallow lakes and ponds, the role of littoral macrophyte patches in deep crater lakes is not well described. The objective of the present study was to investigate the role of littoral macrophyte vegetation in structuring phytoplankton and zooplankton communities and, therefore, sustaining ecological integrity in a deep tropical crater lake (Hora Lake, Ethiopia). The lake has a surface area of 1.03 km2 and a mean depth of 16.5 m. The area surrounding the lake is a prime location for the celebration of the Oromo thanksgiving festival (Irreecha), which is inscribed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an intangible cultural heritage, and also considered sacred by the Oromo people. Measurements of physical, chemical and biological parameters were conducted at fifteen sampling sites in both the littoral and central parts of the lake during the dry and wet seasons in 2017. A total of 28 phytoplankton and 19 zooplankton genera were identified. The phytoplankton and zooplankton communities were dominated by cyanobacteria and rotifers, respectively, at the open water sites. The wetland vegetation was found to be important in reducing potentially toxic and unsightly cyanobacteria. The submerged and emergent vegetation also served as refugia for zooplankton during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Crustaceans accounted for about 30–45% of the total zooplankton abundance within the vegetation fringes. Their abundance decreased to 5% in the non‐vegetated areas, wherein the community was dominated by rotifers. As the population around the lake, particularly during the festival, may damage the aquatic vegetation, their access to the shoreline should be regulated for conservation and sanitary reasons (e.g. to reduce cyanobacteria growths).

Dual Influence of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Activities on the Spatiotemporal Vegetation Dynamics Over the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau From 1981 to 2015

AbstractClimate change and human activities have already caused degradation in a large fraction of vegetation on the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau (QTP). Many studies report that climate variability instead of overgrazing has been the primary cause for large‐scale vegetation cover changes on the QTP, for example, Lehnert et al., 2016, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep24367. However, it remains unclear how human activities (mainly livestock grazing) regulate vegetation dynamics under climate change. This paper takes the AVHRR/GIMMS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as an indicator to analyze the growth status of vegetation zones in the QTP, which has highly sensitive to climate change. The spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation growth between 1981 and 2015 were analyzed. The dual effects of climate change and human activities were examined by correlation analyses of data from 87 meteorological stations and economic statistical data of the QTP. Results show that: (a) The vegetation in central and southwestern QTP with high altitudes was improving due to the warm‐humid climate trend. An increase in temperature and a reduction in the harsh frigid climate at high altitudes due to global warming has resulted in expansions of the vegetated areas, with the NDVI showing a concordant increase. (b) The degraded areas were mainly confined to the northern and eastern QTP, which have high human and livestock population densities. In comparison to gently changing climate regimes, anthropogenic activities such as chronic concentration of population and livestock in the valleys with a less harsh climate exerts a much stronger pressure on vegetation. The study indicates that the anthropogenic pressures are much more intensive than the impact of climate change and are critical for the conservation and sustainable management of the QTP vegetation.

Asymmetrical cooling effects of Amazonian protected areas across spatiotemporal scales

Amazonian protected areas (PAs) play an important role in maintaining the regional and global ecosystem services, biodiversity and climate change mitigation. The effects of Amazonian PAs on climate change mitigation mainly focus on the carbon sequestration benefits. The biophysical effects of PAs on regulating the local energy budgets, and hence changing local climate, however, are often ignored. Using multiple satellite observation datasets, we evaluated the effects of Amazonian PAs on land surface temperature (LST) and the biophysical mechanisms of PAs on surface albedo and evapotranspiration (ET). We showed that Amazonian PAs have a cooling effect on local LST in relative to nearby croplands and non-protected areas (non-PAs) with the same land cover as PAs. The asymmetrical cooling effects of Amazonian PAs between daytime and nighttime, and between the dry and wet seasons sustain lower diurnal and seasonal temperature ranges, respectively, than non-PAs and croplands. The protected forests have stronger cooling effects, and more effectively moderate the diurnal and seasonal temperature ranges than the protected savannas due to the higher effects on surface albedo and ET. The non-PAs show weaker cooling effect than PAs, indicating reduced thermal buffering effect in non-PAs. Our results highlighted the great potential of natural vegetation in PAs versus non-PAs and croplands in buffering local thermal environment and the necessity of natural vegetation conservation in Amazon region.

Nonlocal interactions between vegetation induce spatial patterning

Vegetation pattern provides useful signals for vegetation protection and can be identified as an early warning of desertification. In some arid or semi-arid regions, vegetation absorbs water through nonlocal interaction of roots. In this study, we present a vegetation model with nonlocal interaction which is characterized by an integral term with a kernel function. Mathematical analysis provides the conditions for the generation of stationary pattern. Numerical simulations exhibit different spatial distributions of vegetation. Densities of vegetation and water show an inverse relationship at same spatial locations due to water transport mechanism. The results reveal that the interaction intensity and the shape of the kernel function can cause the transition of vegetation pattern. Specifically, the vegetation biomass increases as the interaction intensity decreases or as the nonlocal interaction distance increases. We demonstrate that the nonlocal interactions between roots of vegetation is a key mechanism for the formation of vegetation pattern, which provides a theoretical basis for the preservation and restoration of vegetation.

Investigating Relationships between Runoff–Erosion Processes and Land Use and Land Cover Using Remote Sensing Multiple Gridded Datasets

Climate variability, land use and land cover changes (LULCC) have a considerable impact on runoff–erosion processes. This study analyzed the relationships between climate variability and spatiotemporal LULCC on runoff–erosion processes in different scenarios of land use and land cover (LULC) for the Almas River basin, located in the Cerrado biome in Brazil. Landsat images from 1991, 2006, and 2017 were used to analyze changes and the LULC scenarios. Two simulations based on the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) were compared: (1) default application using the standard model database (SWATd), and (2) application using remote sensing multiple gridded datasets (albedo and leaf area index) downloaded using the Google Earth Engine (SWATrs). In addition, the SWAT model was applied to analyze the impacts of streamflow and erosion in two hypothetical scenarios of LULC. The first scenario was the optimistic scenario (OS), which represents the sustainable use and preservation of natural vegetation, emphasizing the recovery of permanent preservation areas close to watercourses, hilltops, and mountains, based on the Brazilian forest code. The second scenario was the pessimistic scenario (PS), which presents increased deforestation and expansion of farming activities. The results of the LULC changes show that between 1991 and 2017, the area occupied by agriculture and livestock increased by 75.38%. These results confirmed an increase in the sugarcane plantation and the number of cattle in the basin. The SWAT results showed that the difference between the simulated streamflow for the PS was 26.42%, compared with the OS. The sediment yield average estimation in the PS was 0.035 ton/ha/year, whereas in the OS, it was 0.025 ton/ha/year (i.e., a decrease of 21.88%). The results demonstrated that the basin has a greater predisposition for increased streamflow and sediment yield due to the LULC changes. In addition, measures to contain the increase in agriculture should be analyzed by regional managers to reduce soil erosion in this biome.

Aboveground litter input alters the effects of understory vegetation removal on soil microbial communities and enzyme activities along a 60-cm profile in a subtropical plantation forest

Changes in litter input and understory vegetation due to climate change and human activities affect belowground processes in plantation forests. However, it is unclear whether and how aboveground litter interacts with understory vegetation for their effects on soil microbial communities and functions, especially in deep soils. A field manipulation experiment was conducted, including four treatments of understory vegetation removal plus aboveground litter removal (UVR + ALR), understory vegetation preservation plus aboveground litter addition (UVP + ALA), UVR + ALA, and UVP + ALR in a subtropical Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) plantation. After seven years of continuous treatment, the soil samples along a 60-cm profile were used to evaluate microbial community compositions, major microbial enzyme activities, and several physicochemical properties in the four treatments. UVR resulted in significant negative effects on microbial biomass and enzyme activities at different soil layers with or without litter input, but it did not change the soil microbial communities such as F/B, G+/G−. Compared with ALR, ALA amplified the negative understory vegetation removal effects (UVREs) on β-D-cellobioside (CB), β-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAG), and leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) activities, but did not affect UVREs on total soil PLFAs. Lesser negative UVREs on β-1,4-glucosidase (BG), LAP, and acid phosphatase (AP) activities were observed in top soils compared to deep soils in the ALR treatment. UVREs on soil microbial biomass were not significantly different among soil depths. These results indicate that aboveground litter and soil depth altered UVREs on soil physicochemical properties, primarily through soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities. UVREs were generally more sensitive to major enzyme activities than microbial biomass and were interactively influenced by aboveground litter and soil depth due to synergistic effects within soil ecosystems. This study highlights the integrated feedbacks of microbial structures and functions along soil profiles in response to litter and vegetation interactions in subtropical forests.

Incidence of gastric cancer and risk factors in Suzhou cohort

Objective: To describe gastric cancer incidence in Suzhou cohort, explore the environmental risk factors of gastric cancer in Suzhou, and provide appropriate suggestions for gastric cancer prevention and control. Methods: The participants were from the Suzhou cohort of China Kadoorie Biobank. Baseline survey was conducted from 2004 to 2008, followed by long-term follow-up until December 31, 2013. After the exclusion of those who had been previously diagnosed with peptic ulcer and malignant tumor reported at baseline survey and gastric cancer within six months after enrollment, a total of 50,136 participants were included. Cox proportional risk models were used to identify risk factors of gastric cancer and their hazard ratios in Suzhou. The effect modifications of gender on the association between risk factors and gastric cancer were analyzed. Results: In the follow-up of 7.19 years (median), 374 gastric cancers cases occurred. The standardized incidence was 94.57 per 100 000 person-years. Multivariate Cox proportional risk model analysis found that age (10 years old as a age group, HR=2.20, 95%CI: 1.92-2.53, P<0.001), current smoking (HR=1.84, 95%CI: 1.10-3.07 P=0.020), consumption of preserved vegetables weekly (HR=2.28, 95%CI: 1.28-4.07, P=0.005) and daily (HR=2.05, 95%CI: 1.16-3.61, P=0.013) were risk factors for gastric cancer. Female (HR=0.44, 95%CI: 0.25-0.76, P=0.003) and refrigerator use (10 years as a limit, HR=0.85, 95%CI: 0.74-0.97, P=0.016) were protective factors for gastric cancer. Further analysis showed that there was heterogeneity between males and females in the association between refrigerator use years and the incidence of gastric cancer (P=0.009), and there was an interaction effect between gender and refrigerator use on the incidence of gastric cancer (P=0.010). Conclusions: The incidence of gastric cancer in Suzhou cohort was high. The risk factors of gastric cancer varied. There was a synergistic interaction effect between gender and refrigerator use years on the incidence of gastric cancer.

Effectiveness of protected areas edges on vegetation greenness, cover and productivity on the Tibetan Plateau, China

Protected areas (PAs) are the cornerstones of global vegetation conservation efforts, but growing evidence showed the limited effectiveness of PAs in some regions. Recent attempts to quantify conservation efficiency were mainly focused on vegetation coverage, overlooking other vegetation characteristics, such as greenness and productivity. Here, using multiple indices of vegetation status from satellite observations and a windows search strategy, we measured the conservation efficiency of nature reserves (NRs, the primary category of PAs in China) edge on vegetation greenness, cover, and productivity on the Tibetan Plateau. The results showed that NRs’ edges performed a weak, but significant role in vegetation growth. Over 40% of the areas showed a positive impact of NRs’ edge on vegetation growth in different degrees. However, about 10% of the areas located on NRs’ edge showed a noticeable opposite effect on greenness, cover, and productivity. Compared to some climatic and socio-economic factors (e.g., population density and air temperature), fragmented landscapes and landforms are more likely to inhibit conservation efficiency. The findings of this work can help better understand PAs’ role in securing vegetation conservation and optimize the design of PAs for preventing vegetation losses.

Soil seed bank study of Hirmi woodland vegetation: Implications for restoration and conservation of natural vegetation, in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Soil seed bank (SSB) is an important component in the process of rehabilitating degraded lands by forecasting the future vegetation cover of a given area. The present study was conducted in Hirmidryland vegetation, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia; to investigate the soil seed bank under different land use types in the vegetation ecosystem. A total of 128 soil samples were taken from eight points of four land use types (Shrubland, forest, grassland and bare land) and four soil layers (litter layer, 0–3 cm, 3–6 cm and 6–9 cm depth). Each sample plots measured 15 cm x 15 cm (225cm2). The density, composition and vertical distribution of seedlings were computed. A total of 58 species representing 51 genera and 22 families were recovered from the soil seed bank. Of these, 86.2% of them were herbs. The total density of soil seed banks from all land-use types was 3,116.7seeds/m2. The highest species composition was recorded in the shrubland and the least number of species were recorded in the bare land. Poaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae were among the plant families with high species composition that accounted for 60.35% of the total. Oplismenus burmannii, Woodfordia uniflora, Rhus retinorrhoea and Pennisetum glaucifolium were among the species with high density. The highest Jaccard's coefficient of similarity was revealed between soil seed bank of forest and shrubland whereas the least similarity was recorded between forest land and bare land. The soil seed bank result from all land use types in the study area showed that the regeneration potential of the woody species were poor. Hence, this study underscores other restoration approaches such as growing seedlings of woody species and plantation, direct seeding in the degraded ecosystem and preventing selective cutting of the matured woody species are recommended.

EVALUASI KEMAMPUAN LAHAN PADA LAHAN TANAMAN CENGKEH DAN KAKAO MENUJU PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN

The research purposed to know the land capability class and study the Sustainable Agricultural Management with Agroforestry systems on the land of PT. Fructi Agri Sejati Dusun Komboh, Sambirejo Village, Kec. Wonosalam, Kab. Jombang. One of the ways to manage sustainable agricultural land is by utilizing land according to the land capability class. Land use must be balanced between land use and conservation efforts to maintain the balance of the ecosystem and the preservation of the physical condition the land. The application of agroforestry systems have included one way of the sustainable agricultural systems. The results showed that the land capability class for Clove and Cocoa was class VI with limiting factor is the slope. Land use based on land capability class for clove and cocoa plants, are: 1) Nature Reserve, 2) Forestry, 3) Limited grass, and 4) Fairly good grass. The land use is sought to be as close as possible to the characteristics of the nature reserve and to adjust the slope level, by mechanical and vegetative conservation.

The benefits of coastal adaptation through conservation of foreshore vegetation

AbstractDue to rising sea levels and projected socio‐economic change, global coastal flood risk is expected to increase in the future. To reduce this increase in risk, one option is to reduce the probability or magnitude of the hazard through the implementation of structural, Nature‐based or hybrid adaptation measures. Nature‐based Solutions in coastal areas have the potential to reduce impacts of climate change and can provide a more sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to structural measures. In this paper, we present the first global scale assessment of the benefits of conserving foreshore vegetation as a means of adaptation to future projections of change in coastal flood risk. In doing so, we extend the current knowledge on the economic feasibility of implementing global scale Nature‐based Solutions. We show that globally foreshore vegetation can contribute to a large decrease in both absolute and relative flood risk (13% of present‐day and 8.5% of future conditions in 2080 of global flood risk). Although this study gives a first proxy of the flood risk reduction benefits of conserving foreshore vegetation at the global scale, it shows promising results for including Nature‐based and hybrid adaptation measures in coastal adaptation schemes.

Environmental diagnostics in areas with high potential fragility in the Federal District, Brazil

This study aimed to conduct environmental diagnostics of areas with high potential environmental fragility in the Federal District, Brazil. Reclassified thematic maps of soil slope and vulnerability to water erosion were combined to create the soil susceptibility map to water erosion, which, in turn, was combined with the thematic maps of soil use and rain erosivity. The result was then reclassified, giving rise to the potential environmental fragility map. In the places identified with high potential environmental fragility, information was collected by observing the aspects of the physical, biotic, and anthropogenic environmental components of the landscape. Areas with high potential environmental fragility in the Federal District were found. In those locations, the uses and occupations of the soil observed were intensive farming, small rural activities, managed intensive livestock and degraded intensive livestock. Land use and occupation in areas with high potential environmental fragility of the Federal District, with “degraded intensive livestock”, make such sites environmentally fragile since there is a scarcity of non-preserved natural areas and there is no soil conservation method. It was concluded that, for the use and occupation of the soil with high potential environmental fragility areas in the Federal District, which are taken by intensive farming, small rural activities, and managed intensive livestock, the conservation of the natural areas and the vegetative and mechanical soil conservation techniques must be implemented.

Assessing Restoration of Ecosystem Functioning in Brazilian Subtropical and Tropical Streams

AbstractRivers and streams provide many ecosystem services, including provision of food, water purification, and nutrient abatement. Ecosystem functioning, the set of processes that regulate the fluxes of energy and matter, is the backbone of ecosystem services. A myriad of human impacts affects the functioning of running waters. To reduce these impacts, strategies for conservation and recovery of riparian vegetation, as well as direct interventions for stream restoration, have been carried out. However, these actions have been more limited in sub/tropical than in temperate regions. Based on case studies from southeastern Brazil and comparisons with their temperate counterparts, we illustrate and discuss how restoration of riparian canopy cover and stream reconfiguration through the addition of wood can influence two key ecosystem processes: nutrient retention and metabolism. Our findings indicate that the distinctive environmental features of the sub/tropical climate strongly shape the effect of stream restoration on ecosystem functioning. However, as in the temperate climate, effects are rarely monitored for a long time after the restoration, indicating the need for their longer‐term assessment. Understanding how restoration evolves over time to impact the functioning of sub/tropical streams is fundamental for the management and conservation of these strategic water bodies and the relevant ecosystem services they provide.