Vector Management Strategies Research Articles

Vector control programs in Saint Johns County, Florida and Guayas, Ecuador: successes and barriers to integrated vector management.

BackgroundVector-borne diseases (VBDs) and mosquito control programs (MCPs) diverge in settings and countries, and lead control specialists need to be aware of the most effective control strategies. Integrated Vector Management (IVM) strategies, once implemented in MCPs, aim to reduce cost and optimize protection of the populations against VBDs. This study presents a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis to compare IVM strategies used by MCPs in Saint Johns County, Florida and Guayas, Ecuador. This research evaluates MCPs strategies to improve vector control activities.MethodsMethods included descriptive findings of the MCP operations. Information was obtained from vector control specialists, directors, and residents through field trips, surveys, and questionnaires. Evaluations of the strategies and assets of the control programs where obtained through SWOT analysis and within an IVM approach.ResultsOrganizationally, the Floridian MCP is a tax-based District able to make decisions independently from county government officials, with the oversight of an elected board of commissioners. The Guayas program is directed by the country government and assessed by non-governmental organizations like the World health Organization. Operationally, the Floridian MCP conducts entomological surveillance and the Ecuadorian MCP focuses on epidemiological monitoring of human disease cases. Strengths of both MCPs were their community participation and educational programs. Weaknesses for both MCPs included limitations in budgets and technical capabilities. Opportunities, for both MCPs, are additional funding and partnerships with private, non-governmental, and governmental organizations. Threats experienced by both MCPs included political constraints and changes in the social and ecological environment that affect mosquito densities and control efforts. IVM pillars for policy making were used to compare the information among the programs. Differences included how the Ecuadorian MCP relies heavily on the community for vector control while the American MCP relies on technologies and research.ConclusionIVM based recommendations direct health policy leaders toward improving surveillance systems both entomologically and epidemiologically, improving community risk perceptions by integrating components of community participation, maximizing resources though the use of applied research, and protecting the environment by selecting low-risk pesticides. Outcomes of the research revealed that inter-sectorial and multidisciplinary interventions are critical to improve public health.

Community knowledge and acceptance of larviciding for malaria control in a rural district of east-central Tanzania.

The use of microbial larvicides, a form of larval source management, is a less commonly used malaria control intervention that nonetheless has significant potential as a component of an integrated vector management strategy. We evaluated community acceptability of larviciding in a rural district in east-central Tanzania using data from 962 household surveys, 12 focus group discussions, and 24 in-depth interviews. Most survey respondents trusted in the safety (73.1%) and efficacy of larviciding, both with regards to mosquito control (92.3%) and to reduce malaria infection risk (91.9%). Probing these perceptions using a Likert scale provides a more detailed picture. Focus group participants and key informants were also receptive to larviciding, but stressed the importance of sensitization before its implementation. Overall, 73.4% of survey respondents expressed a willingness to make a nominal household contribution to a larviciding program, a proportion which decreased as the proposed contribution increased. The lower-bound mean willingness to pay is estimated at 2,934 Tanzanian Shillings (approximately US$1.76) per three month period. We present a multivariate probit regression analysis examining factors associated with willingness to pay. Overall, our findings point to a receptive environment in a rural setting in Tanzania for the use of microbial larvicides in malaria control.

Seasonal Dynamics of Thrips (<I>Thrips tabaci</I>) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Transmitters of Iris Yellow Spot Virus: A Serious Viral Pathogen of Onion Bulb and Seed Crops

Thrips-transmitted Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV) is an important economic constraint to the production of bulb and seed onion crops in the United States and many other parts of the world. Because the virus is exclusively spread by thrips, the ability to rapidly detect the virus in thrips vectors would facilitate studies on the role of thrips in virus epidemiology, and thus formulation of better vector management strategies. Using a polyclonal antiserum produced against the recombinant, Escherichia coli-expressed nonstructural protein coded by the small (S) RNA of IYSV, an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was developed for detecting IYSV in individual as well as groups of adult thrips. The approach enabled estimating the proportion of potential thrips transmitters in a large number of field-collected thrips collected from field-grown onion plants. Availability of a practical and inexpensive test to identify viruliferous thrips would be useful in epidemiological studies to better understand the role of thrips vectors in outbreaks of this economically important virus of onion.

Anopheles ziemanni a locally important malaria vector in Ndop health district, north west region of Cameroon.

BackgroundMalaria transmission in Cameroon is mediated by a plethora of vectors that are heterogeneously distributed across the country depending on the biotope. To effectively guide malaria control operations, regular update on the role of local Anopheles species is essential. Therefore, an entomological survey was conducted between August 2010 and May 2011 to evaluate the role of the local anopheline population in malaria transmission in three villages of the Ndop health district in the northwest region of Cameroon where malaria is holoendemic, as a means to acquiring evidence based data for improved vector intervention.MethodsMosquitoes were sampled both indoor and outdoor for four consecutive nights in each locality during each month of survey. Sampling was done by the human landing catch method on volunteers. Anopheles species were identified morphologically and their ovaries randomly dissected for parity determination. Infection with Plasmodium falciparum was detected by Circumsporozoite protein ELISA. Members of An. gambiae complex were further identified to molecular level by PCR and RFLP PCR.ResultsAn. ziemanni was the main malaria vector and whether outdoor or indoor. The man biting rate for the vectors ranged from 6.75 to 8.29 bites per person per night (b/p/n). The entomological inoculation rate for this vector species was 0.0278 infectious bites per person per night (ib/p/n) in Mbapishi, 0.034 ib/p/n in Mbafuh, and 0.063 ib/p/n in Backyit. These were by far greater than that for An. gambiae. No difference was observed in the parity rate of these two vectors. PCR analysis revealed the presence of only An. colluzzi (M- form).ConclusionsAn. ziemanni is an important local malaria vector in Ndop health district. The findings provide useful baseline information on the anopheles species composition, their distribution and role in malaria transmission that would guide the implementation of integrated vector management strategies in the locality.

EMERGING HUMAN HEALTH RISKS PERTINENT TO MODERN AGRICULTURE;

In developing countries week and dispersed link has been shown between agriculture and human diseases. In this regardpresent review was conducted and revealed several examples that there exist strong link between agriculture and diseases. Reviewcategorized the major disease into zoonotic, vector borne and food associated. Zoonotic diseases were found to be transmitted by thelivestock. Some of these diseases are also associates with vectors that were found to be transmitted by the agriculture. Mosquito is themajor vector transferring malaria, cholera and skin diseases. Agricultural intensification is the major source of their climate changethrough increased emission of green house gases. Agricultural intensification, ecological disturbance and inadequate agriculturalmanagements are the dominant reason revealed. Rate of future agricultural diseases such as zoonotic diseases emergence orreemergence will be closely linked to the evolution of the agriculture–environment nexus. Meanwhile, the available research is not enoughto address these issues. Agriculture sector is for peace and sustainability and to strengthen this sustainability there is dire need ofConvergence is needed between integrated pest management strategies and integrated vector management strategies to help farmersimprove their agricultural practices while minimizing environmental risks to health. In addition, further research by the medical scientistsand agricultural scientists is needed to explore the epidemiology of various diseases caused by the agricultural activities throughpromotion of vector.

Expression and accumulation of the two-domain odorant-binding protein AaegOBP45 in the ovaries of blood-fed Aedes aegypti

BackgroundAedes aegypti mosquitoes are the main vectors of dengue viruses. Despite global efforts to reduce the prevalence of dengue using integrated vector management strategies, innovative alternatives are necessary to help prevent virus transmission. Detailed characterizations of Ae. aegypti genes and their products provide information about the biology of mosquitoes and may serve as foundations for the design of new vector control methods.FindingsWe studied the Ae. aegypti gene, AAEL010714, that encodes a two-domain odorant-binding protein, AaegOBP45. The predicted gene structure and sequence were validated, although single nucleotide polymorphisms were observed. Transcriptional and translational products accumulate in the ovaries of blood fed females and are not detected or are at low abundance in other tissues.ConclusionsWe validated the Ae. aegypti AAEL010714 gene sequence and characterized the expression profile of a two-domain OBP expressed in ovaries. We propose that AaegOBP45 function as a component of the mosquito eggshell.

Transient Population Dynamics of Mosquitoes during Sterile Male Releases: Modelling Mating Behaviour and Perturbations of Life History Parameters

The release of genetically-modified or sterile male mosquitoes offers a promising form of mosquito-transmitted pathogen control, but the insights derived from our understanding of male mosquito behaviour have not fully been incorporated into the design of such genetic control or sterile-male release methods. The importance of aspects of male life history and mating behaviour for sterile-male release programmes were investigated by projecting a stage-structured matrix model over time. An elasticity analysis of transient dynamics during sterile-male releases was performed to provide insight on which vector control methods are likely to be most synergistic. The results suggest that high mating competitiveness and mortality costs of released males are required before the sterile-release method becomes ineffective. Additionally, if released males suffer a mortality cost, older males should be released due to their increased mating capacity. If released males are of a homogenous size and size-assortative mating occurs in nature, this can lead to an increase in the abundance of large females and reduce the efficacy of the population-suppression effort. At a high level of size-assortative mating, the disease transmission potential of the vector population increases due to male releases, arguing for the release of a heterogeneously-sized male population. The female population was most sensitive to perturbations of density-dependent components of larval mortality and female survivorship and fecundity. These findings suggest source reduction might be a particularly effective complement to mosquito control based on the sterile insect technique (SIT). In order for SIT to realize its potential as a key component of an integrated vector-management strategy to control mosquito-transmitted pathogens, programme design of sterile-male release programmes must account for the ecology, behaviour and life history of mosquitoes. The model used here takes a step in this direction and can easily be modified to investigate additional aspects of mosquito behaviour or species-specific ecology.

Chemical Composition and Mosquito Repellency of Essential Oil of Tagetes minuta from the Southern Slopes of Mount Elgon in Western Kenya

Ethnopharmacologically, Tagetes minuta has a lot of applications in the history of human life. The study aimed at characterizing the essential oil from fresh aerial parts of T. minuta and evaluating its repellent effect on the host-seeking female Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes, the vector of African malaria. The oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS). Compounds were identified by comparison of their mass spectra with those in Wiley NBS and NIST databases and GC retention times to those of authentic samples. The repellent effect of the essential oil was evaluated using a human-bait technique to simulate field situation. The percentage yield of the essential oil of T. minuta was 0.00029 % w/w with a specific gravity of 0.8953 mg/ml. The oil showed a complex composition of about 119 hydrocarbon compounds and may be richer in monoterpenes (47.90 %) than in any other type of compounds. The main principal constituents of the essential oil of T. minuta included: ocimene, dihydrotagetone, tagetones, ocimenones, piperitenone, 3,9-epoxy-p-metha-1,8(10) diene, βcaryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene and AR-turmerone. Some of these constituents reported in literature have shown insecticidal, acaricidal, pesticidal and/or repellent properties. Although not manifesting a clear general trend, the essential oil however showed a significant dose-response effect of repellency (p < 0.05). More mosquitoes significantly landed and bit the control arm treated with vaseline pure petroleum jelly than the arm treated with the essential oil of T. minuta (p < 0.05), thus showing repellency properties of the oil against An. Arabiensis mosquitoes. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanism of repellency remains unknown. However, the oil may represent a potentially new, most practical and economic way and readily available and applicable malaria vector control tool for incorporation into integrated vector management strategies and contribute to the provision of prophylactic measures, particularly at an individual level.

Operational scale entomological intervention for malaria control: strategies, achievements and challenges in Zambia

BackgroundWhile consensus on malaria vector control policy and strategy has stimulated unprecedented political-will, backed by international funding organizations and donors, vector control interventions are expansively being implemented based on assumptions with unequaled successes. This manuscript reports on the strategies, achievements and challenges of the past and contemporary malaria vector control efforts in Zambia.Case descriptionAll available information and accessible archived documentary records on malaria vector control in Zambia were reviewed. Retrospective analysis of routine surveillance data from the Health Management Information System (HMIS), data from population-based household surveys and various operations research reports was conducted to assess the status in implementing policies and strategies.Discussion and evaluationEmpirical evidence is critical for informing policy decisions and tailoring interventions to local settings. Thus, the World Health Organization (WHO) encourages the adoption of the integrated vector management (IVM) strategy which is a rational decision making process for optimal use of available resources. One of the key features of IVM is capacity building at the operational level to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate vector control and its epidemiological and entomological impact. In Zambia, great progress has been made in implementing WHO-recommended vector control policies and strategies within the context of the IVM Global Strategic framework with strong adherence to its five key attributes.ConclusionsThe country has solid, consistent and coordinated policies, strategies and guidelines for malaria vector control. The Zambian experience demonstrates the significance of a coordinated multi-pronged IVM approach effectively operationalized within the context of a national health system.

Geographical Factors Affecting Bed Net Ownership, a Tool for the Elimination of Anopheles-Transmitted Lymphatic Filariasis in Hard-to-Reach Communities

Vector control, including the use of bed nets, is recommended as a possible strategy for eliminating lymphatic filariasis (LF) in post-conflict countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This study examined the geographical factors that influence bed net ownership in DRC in order to identify hard-to-reach communities that need to be better targeted. In particular, urban/rural differences and the influence of population density, proximity to cities and health facilities, plus access to major transport networks were investigated. Demographic and Health Survey geo-referenced cluster level data were used to map bed net coverage (proportion of households with at least one of any type of bed net or at least one insecticide-treated net (ITN)), and ITN density (ITNs per person) for 260 clusters. Bivariate and multiple logistic or Poisson regression analyses were used to determine significant relationships. Overall, bed net (30%) and ITN (9%) coverage were very low with significant differences found between urban and rural clusters. In rural clusters, ITN coverage/density was positively correlated with population density (r = 0.25, 0.27 respectively, p<0.01), and negatively with the distance to the two largest cities, Kinshasa or Lubumbashi (r = −0.28, −0.30 respectively, p<0.0001). Further, ownership was significantly negatively correlated with distance to primary national roads and railways (all three measures), distance to main rivers (any bed net only) and distance to the nearest health facility (ITNs only). Logistic and Poisson regression models fitted to the rural cluster data indicated that, after controlling for measured covariates, ownership levels in the Bas-Congo province close to Kinshasa were much larger than that of other provinces. This was most noticeable when considering ITN coverage (odds ratio: 5.3, 95% CI: 3.67–7.70). This analysis provides key insights into the barriers of bed net ownership, which will help inform both LF and malaria bed net distribution campaigns as part of an integrated vector management strategy.

Lessons from Agriculture for the Sustainable Management of Malaria Vectors

The effectiveness of insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor insecticide sprays to control adult mosquito vectors is being threatened by the spread of insecticide resistance. We argue for expanding beyond “insecticide monotherapy” to more sustainable integrated vector management strategies that use optimal suites of control tactics. Experience in agriculture suggests that such integrated approaches can provide more effective and durable pest management. This shift will require increased investment in research and translational science. Failure to act risks a resurgence of malaria and erosion of community support and donor commitment.

Impact of entomological interventions on malaria vector bionomics in low transmission settings in Zambia

Entomological interventions for malaria control are being scaled up in the context of the integrated vector management strategy in Zambia. This paper reports the continuous entomological monitoring of the operational impact of indoor residual insecticide spraying (IRS) and distribution of about 6 million insecticide-impregnated bed-nets (ITN) over two peak malaria transmission seasons. Mosquitoes were captured daily using exit window traps at monitoring sentinel sites and analyzed for species identification, densities, and sporozoite rates to assess the efficacy of the vector control tools. All the three major malaria vectors; Anopheles gambiae senso stricto (s.s.), Anopheles arabiensis andAnopheles funestus were collected and identified. The intervention effect of IRS and ITNs was more pronounced on A. gambiae s.s. and A. funestus than A. arabiensis (c2 = 0.003, df = 1, P = 0.956), indicating that A. gambiae s.s. and A. funestus are amenable to control by IRS and ITNs. None of these vectors tested positive for Plasmodium falciparumsporozoites, thus, signifying their lack of transmission potential. This study demonstrates that entomological monitoring and evaluation is an indispensable underpinning for rational insecticide based malaria vector control. It provides compelling evidence for the need to integrate entomological parameters into routine surveillance systems, and also strongly substantiates the deployment of the integrated vector management strategy. Key words: Zambia, malaria, impact, indoor residual spraying, insecticide treated nets, transmission.

Exploiting the behaviour of wild malaria vectors to achieve high infection with fungal biocontrol agents.

BackgroundControl of mosquitoes that transmit malaria has been the mainstay in the fight against the disease, but alternative methods are required in view of emerging insecticide resistance. Entomopathogenic fungi are candidate alternatives, but to date, few trials have translated the use of these agents to field-based evaluations of their actual impact on mosquito survival and malaria risk. Mineral oil-formulations of the entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana were applied using five different techniques that each exploited the behaviour of malaria mosquitoes when entering, host-seeking or resting in experimental huts in a malaria endemic area of rural Tanzania.ResultsSurvival of mosquitoes was reduced by 39-57% relative to controls after forcing upward house-entry of mosquitoes through fungus treated baffles attached to the eaves or after application of fungus-treated surfaces around an occupied bed net (bed net strip design). Moreover, 68 to 76% of the treatment mosquitoes showed fungal growth and thus had sufficient contact with fungus treated surfaces. A population dynamic model of malaria-mosquito interactions shows that these infection rates reduce malaria transmission by 75-80% due to the effect of fungal infection on adult mortality alone. The model also demonstrated that even if a high proportion of the mosquitoes exhibits outdoor biting behaviour, malaria transmission was still significantly reduced.ConclusionsEntomopathogenic fungi strongly affect mosquito survival and have a high predicted impact on malaria transmission. These entomopathogens represent a viable alternative for malaria control, especially if they are used as part of an integrated vector management strategy.

Adapted for invasion? Comparing attachment, drag and dislodgment of native and nonindigenous hull fouling species

Invasive species possess unique traits that allow them to navigate the invasion process in order to establish and spread in new habitats. Successful hull fouling invaders must resist both physical and physiological stressors associated with their voyage. We characterised attachment strength and drag coefficient of common fouling species in order to estimate the velocity required to dislodge them from boat hulls. We hypothesized nonindigenous fouling species would possess biomechanical properties that enable them to remain attached to hulls more successfully than similar native species. Indeed, the well-known invasive ascidian Styela clava had both high attachment strength and low drag coefficient and its dislodgment velocity was well above that of fast moving vessels. In contrast, the native congener Styela gibbsii had low attachment strength and higher drag coefficient. Colonial invasive species employed a different hitchhiking strategy; despite their low attachment strengths, Botrylloides violaceus and Didemnum vexillum had low drag coefficients allowing them to be transported on slower-moving vessels, such as sailboats and barges. The biomechanical adaptations of invasive species show promise in predicting future invaders and informing vector management strategies at the first node in the invasion process: transport by the vector.

Challenge to vector control and sustainable vector management strategy

病媒生物控制是一个全球性的问题,在世界重大疾病预防控制中占据重要地位,是对病媒生物性传染病,特别是对尚无有效疫苗控制的病媒生物性传染病一个非常重要的防控手段[1],也是预防绝大多数媒介生物性疾病如疟疾等病原体传播的主要措施[2].尽管目前许多病媒生物性传染病在一些地区得到了有效控制,但人类与病媒生物及其相关传染病之间的斗争却无丝毫减弱之势[3]. 关键词：病媒生物;可持续控制

Transmission Attributes of Periurban Malaria in Lusaka, Zambia, Precedent to the Integrated Vector Management Strategy: An Entomological Input

Globalization and urbanization with their inherent developmental activities and ecological transformations impact on malaria epidemiology. Entomological factors involved in malaria transmission in periurban Lusaka were assessed prior to vector control reintroduction. Data was collected through standard entomological and epidemiological protocols and a pretested structured questionnaire. Larval habitats were characterized as transient (43%), semipermanent (36%), and permanent (21%). Anopheles arabiensis and An. gambiae ss. were the only vectors identified. A shift in vector population was noted, with the later outnumbering the former. Plasmodium falciparum monoinfection rates were 25.6% (95% CI: 20.9–30.7) (n = 297). Parasitaemia was 31.8% (95% CI: 23.2–42.2), 25.7% (95% CI: 13.5–41.3), and 23.3% (95% CI: 17.4–29.6) in under 5, 5 to 14, and above 15 age groups, respectively. Low knowledge levels on vector control tools with an average of 7 residents per household were also observed. This study confirmed a local malaria transmission paradigm. The epidemiology necessitated deployment of an integrated vector management strategy with intensified information education and communication.

Progress towards understanding the ecology and epidemiology of malaria in the western Kenya highlands: Opportunities and challenges for control under climate change risk

Following severe malaria epidemics in the western Kenya highlands after the late 1980s it became imperative to undertake eco-epidemiological assessments of the disease and determine its drivers, spatial–temporal distribution and control strategies. Extensive research has indicated that the major biophysical drivers of the disease are climate change and variability, terrain, topography, hydrology and immunity. Vector distribution is focalized at valley bottoms and abundance is closely related with drainage efficiency, habitat availability, stability and productivity of the ecosystems. Early epidemic prediction models have been developed and they can be used to assess climate risks that warrant extra interventions with a lead time of 2–4 months. Targeted integrated vector management strategies can significantly reduce the cost on the indoor residual spraying by targeting the foci of transmission in transmission hotspots. Malaria control in the highlands has reduced vector population by 90%, infections by 50–90% in humans and in some cases transmission has been interrupted. Insecticide resistance is increasing and as transmission decreases so will immunity. Active surveillance will be required to monitor and contain emerging threats. More studies on eco-stratification of the disease, based on its major drivers, are required so that interventions are tailored for specific ecosystems. New and innovative control interventions such as house modification with a one-application strategy may reduce the threat from insecticide resistance and low compliance associated with the use of ITNs.

Population genetic structure of Culex quinquefasciatus in India by ISSR marker

Objective To characterize the genetic structure of various populations of Culex quinquefasciatus ( Cx. quinquefasciatus) from India representing different geoclimatic locations. Methods Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers were used. A set of 20 primers were screened with the laboratory populations of mosquito species. Finally the IS 40 primer was chosen based on the scorable banding pattern showing 100 percent polymorphism among the various populations. The statistical analysis was done using POPGENE 1.31 software. The consensus tree was generated based on UPGMA modified from NEIGHBOR procedure of PHYLIP Version 3.5. Results The cluster analysis shows the main cluster which is divided into two sub cluster representing all the populations separated as per their phylogeographic and geoclimatic condition. Conclusions The findings will be helpful in understanding the population variation under different ecological conditions and development of effective vector management strategies.

Genetic elimination of dengue vector mosquitoes

An approach based on mosquitoes carrying a conditional dominant lethal gene (release of insects carrying a dominant lethal, RIDL) is being developed to control the transmission of dengue viruses by vector population suppression. A transgenic strain, designated OX3604C, of the major dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, was engineered to have a repressible female-specific flightless phenotype. This strain circumvents the need for radiation-induced sterilization, allows genetic sexing resulting in male-only releases, and permits the release of eggs instead of adult mosquitoes. OX3604C males introduced weekly into large laboratory cages containing stable target mosquito populations at initial ratios of 8.5-101 OX3604Ctarget eliminated the populations within 10-20weeks. These data support the further testing of this strain in contained or confined field trials to evaluate mating competitiveness and environmental and other effects. Successful completion of the field trials should facilitate incorporation of this approach into area-wide dengue control or elimination efforts as a component of an integrated vector management strategy.

Development of Fungal Applications on Netting Substrates for Malaria Vector Control

Mosquito resistance to chemical insecticides is considered a serious threat for the sustainable use of contemporary malaria vector control methods. Fungal entomopathogens show potential as alternative biological control agents against (insecticide-resistant) anophelines. This study was designed to test whether the fungus, Beauveria bassiana, could be delivered to mosquitoes on netting materials that might be used in house screens, such as eave curtains. Tests were conducted to determine effects of formulation, application method, netting material, and nature of mosquito contact. Beauveria had a twice as high impact on Anopheles gambiae s.s. longevity when suspended in Shellsol solvent compared with Ondina oil (HR = 2.12, 95% confidence interval = 1.83-2.60, P < 0.001), and was significantly more infective when applied through spraying than dipping. Polyester and cotton bednets were the most effective substrates for mosquito infections, with highest spore viability on cotton nets. Whereas fungal impact was highest in mosquitoes that had passed through large-meshed impregnated nets, overall efficacy was equal between small- and large-meshed nets, with < or = 30-min spore contact killing >90% of mosquitoes within 10 d. Results indicate that the use of fungal spores dissolved in Shellsol and sprayed on small-meshed cotton eave curtain nets would be the most promising option for field implementation. Biological control with fungus-impregnated eave curtains could provide a means to target host-seeking mosquitoes upon house entry, and has potential for use in integrated vector management strategies, in combination with chemical vector control measures, to supplement malaria control in areas with high levels of insecticide resistance.