Vectors Of Infectious Diseases Research Articles

Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genome of Ixodes granulatus (Ixodidae) and its phylogenetic implications.

Ticks are deemed to be second only to mosquitoes as the most common vector of human infectious diseases worldwide that give rise to human and animal diseases and economic losses to livestock production. Our understanding of the phylogenetic analysis between tick lineages has been restricted by the phylogenetic markers of individual genes. Genomic data research could help advance our understanding of phylogenetic analysis and molecular evolution. Mitochondrial genomic DNA facilitated the phylogenetic analysis of eukaryotes containing ticks. In this study, we sequenced and assembled the circular complete mitogenome information of Ixodes granulatus. The 14,540-bp mitogenome consists of 37 genes, including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNAs), and 22 genes for transfer RNA (tRNAs), and the origin of the L-strand replication region. The directions of the coding strand and component genes in the non-Australasian Ixodes mitochondrial genome were similar to those found in most other Australasian Ixodes, except for the loss of a lengthy control region. The phylogenetic tree based on maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) computational algorithms showed that I. granulatus exhibits a close relationship with I. hexagonus and I. ricinus. To our knowledge, this is the first study exploring the complete mitogenome for the species I. granulatus. Our results provide new insights for further research on the evolution, population genetics, systematics, and molecular ecology of ticks.

Crystallography of Contemporary Contact Insecticides.

Simple SummaryThe efficacy of crystalline contact insecticides is dependent foremost on the uptake of insecticide molecules by insect tarsi contacting crystal surfaces. Insecticide molecules, however, may organize in more than one way in the crystalline state, resulting in more than one crystalline form (also known as polymorph). We recently discovered that the lethality of contact insecticides increases with decreasing thermodynamic stability of the crystalline forms; the most stable crystalline form is invariably the least lethal/slowest acting. Polymorphism in contact insecticides, and its importance to efficacy, was largely unknown to the vector control community. It is argued that the crystallographic characterization of contact insecticide solids should be systematic to identify more active solid forms. Herein, we report seven new crystal structures, mostly pyrethroid insecticides recommended by the WHO for indoor residual spraying, as well as a new form of a neonicotinoid insecticide. These results further highlight polymorphism in contact insecticides and the importance of solid-state chemistry in the search for more active crystal forms.The active forms of contact insecticides used for combatting mosquito-borne infectious diseases are typically crystalline solids. Numerous molecular crystals are polymorphic, crystallizing in several solid forms characterized by different physicochemical properties, including bioavailability. Our laboratory recently found that the activity of crystalline contact insecticides is inversely dependent on the thermodynamic stability of their polymorphs, suggesting that efficacy can be enhanced by the manipulation of the solid-state structure. This paper argues that crystallography should be central to the development of contact insecticides, particularly because their efficacy continues to be compromised by insecticide resistance, especially among Anopheles mosquito populations that spread malaria. Although insecticidal compounds with new modes of action have been introduced to overcome resistance, new insecticides are expensive to develop and implement. The repurposing of existing chemical agents in metastable, more active crystalline forms provides an inexpensive and efficient method for ‘evergreening’ compounds whose risks are already well-established. We report herein seven new single-crystal structures of insecticides used for controlling infectious disease vectors. The structures reported herein include pyrethroid insecticides recommended by the WHO for indoor residual spraying (IRS)-bifenthrin, β-cyfluthrin, etofenprox, α-cypermethrin, and λ-cyhalothrin as well as the neonicotinoid insecticide thiacloprid.

Plant proteins as natural, biodegradable, low cost larvicides against mosquitoes

Vectors spread infectious and deadly diseases among human beings and animals. The best-known vector of many infectious diseases is mosquito. Some other vectors are flies, ticks, fleas, aquatic snails and triatomine bugs. Mosquitoes are the major group of arthropods which causes millions of deaths every year. Mosquitoes breed in the water and the larval stage is attractive target for botanical insecticides to deal with them in their habitat. Plant contains many phytochemicals which act as mosquito repellents, larvicidal agents, insect growth regulators and transmission blocking sources. There are many reports available showing larvicidal activities of plant crude extracts and some compounds isolated from crude extracts. But there is very little information available about plant proteins as larvicides. The present study shade light on mosquito larvicidal role of crude proteins extracts, some toxic proteins (lectins, RIPs, proteinases inhibitors) derived from different plants and plant-based expression system for transmission blocking vaccine. This review may straighten out the complete investigations of the potency of anti-larvicidal properties of plant derived proteins and these proteins could be targeted for drug formation, natural bio-insecticide and transmission blocking agents for the control of vector borne diseases.

Larval density and physicochemical properties of three different breeding habitats of Anopheles mosquitoes in Sudan Savannah Region of Jigawa State, Nigeria

Mosquitoes are tiny insects that can serve as vectors for numerous infectious diseases like malaria. Malaria is considered as one of the major causes of mortality, loss of productivity and a major contributor of poverty in the African continent. In 2020, most global malaria cases (94%) were recorded in the Africa Region. In Nigeria, about 97% of the estimated populations are at risk of malaria, with up to 27% and 24% of Africa and global malaria deaths respectively in 2018. Malaria control programmes in Africa have challenge of rising insecticide resistance in the main anopheline vectors, this affects primary malaria vector control interventions. In Africa, the dominant mosquito species that transmit malaria parasites are mainly Anopheles gambiae s.s. A key control strategy against major mosquito- borne diseases involves targeting mosquito vectors to disrupt the transmission of diseases. Environmental changes can alter the genetic structure, protein profiles and enzymes of mosquitoes leading to increase in insecticide resistance. Knowing the ecology, spatial distribution of mosquito larvae, and some environmental features like physicochemical factors are important in tackling insecticide resistance. Water and larval samples were collected from three Anopheles mosquito breeding sites in August, September and October, 2019. Physicochemical parameters, larval densities and morphological specie identifications were determined. Results from this study reveal variation in levels of each studied parameter according to the site of the study. These variations can be attributed to differences in activities that occur in each site of the study.. Correlation studies indicated a significantly higher larval density in agricultural site relative to industrial and residential sites, this was by a magnitude of 10.65 and 41.30 respectively. Anopheles gambiae s.s. complex was found to be predominant in all the three study sites. These physicochemical parameters can either have negative or positive effect on mosquito biology depending on their levels, hence can affect vector control measures making it significant in terms of vector control programmes.

Passenger exposure to aerosols on intra-European train travel

Knowledge about personal aerosol exposure in different environments is fundamental for individual and common decision-making, shaping the way we build our infrastructure or change our social behaviours. Aerosols are a leading cause of death and well-known vector for infectious diseases. Yet, passenger exposure to aerosols during long-distance train travel is surprisingly underexplored. Two small, light-weight personal monitoring instruments were employed during a train journey across Europe, to measure the fine particle (PM2.5) and equivalent black carbon (eBC) passenger exposure, respectively. The journey was divided into three legs, inside three different trains, and two layovers in city environments. Highest mean concentrations of PM2.5 and eBC were found within the oldest train type, and revealed PM2.5 concentrations of 58.4 ± 12.7 μg m−3 and eBC of 5.4 ± 2.9 μg m−3. The more modern the train system was, the lower the measured concentrations were to be found. In the newest tested system, the air quality was considerably better inside the train than outdoor air measured by a monitoring network, or simulated by the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) model ensemble analysis. The mean PM2.5 concentration was roughly 20% lower inside the train than the outdoor air simulated by CAMS. Both the light-weight personal monitoring and the monitoring network indicate that the CAMS ensemble substantially underestimates PM2.5 concentrations for the day of the journey. Effective ventilation and air filtration significantly decrease the passenger’s aerosol exposure, as compared to a stay in outdoor air, leading to a small statistical increase in life expectancy. If this could also reduce the risk of contagion with an infectious disease remains to be explored.

Higher Variability in Fungi Compared to Bacteria in the Foraging Honey Bee Gut.

Along with bacteria, fungi can represent a significant component of animal- and plant-associated microbial communities. However, we have only begun to describe these fungi, much less examine their effects on most animals and plants. Bacteria associated with the honey bee, Apis mellifera, have been well characterized across different regions of the gut. The mid- and hindgut of foraging bees house a deterministic set of core species that affect host health, whereas the crop, or the honey stomach, harbors a more diverse set of bacteria that is highly variable in composition among individual bees. Whether this contrast between the two regions of the gut also applies to fungi remains unclear despite their potential influence on host health. In honey bees caught foraging at four sites across the San Francisco Peninsula of California, we found that fungi were less distinct in species composition between the crop and the mid- and hindgut than bacteria. Unlike bacteria, fungi varied substantially in species composition throughout the honey bee gut, and much of this variation could be predicted by the location where we collected the bees. These observations suggest that fungi may be transient passengers and unimportant as gut symbionts. However, our findings also indicate that honey bees could be vectors of infectious plant diseases as many of the fungi we found in the honey bee gut are recognized as plant pathogens.

Cryopreservation of Anopheles stephensi embryos

The ability to cryopreserve mosquitoes would revolutionize work on these vectors of major human infectious diseases by conserving stocks, new isolates, lab-bred strains, and transgenic lines that currently require continuous life cycle maintenance. Efforts over several decades to develop a method for cryopreservation have, until now, been fruitless: we describe here a method for the cryopreservation of Anopheles stephensi embryos yielding hatch rates of ~ 25%, stable for > 5 years. Hatched larvae developed into fertile, fecund adults and blood-fed females, produced fully viable second generation eggs, that could be infected with Plasmodium falciparum at high intensities. The key components of the cryopreservation method are: embryos at 15–30 min post oviposition, two incubation steps in 100% deuterated methanol at − 7 °C and − 14.5 °C, and rapid cooling. Eggs are recovered by rapid warming with concomitant dilution of cryoprotectant. Eggs of genetically modified A. stephensi and of A. gambiae were also successfully cryopreserved. This enabling methodology will allow long-term conservation of mosquitoes as well as acceleration of genetic studies and facilitation of mass storage of anopheline mosquitoes for release programs.

Isolation and Characterization of Mosquito-Associated Spiroplasma cantharicola from Aedes japonicus Collected in Hokkaido, Japan.

Simple SummarySpiroplasma, which comprises a group of the smallest known bacteria, is commonly found in insects and plants. Some species of Spiroplasma have shown pathogenicity against mosquitoes and are expected to be useful vector control tools. In this study, we isolated S. cantharicola from the mosquito Aedes japonicus collected in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Field surveillance implied a relatively low prevalence of the bacteria in the local mosquitoes. Phylogenetic analysis showed that our isolate is closer to a strain of S. cantharicola isolated from mosquitoes in previous studies. Our isolate grew well in the R2 broth medium and grew into a visible colony on R2 broth agar. Co-culturing with mosquito-derived C6/36 cells resulted in slightly more bacterial growth than culturing without cells, showing the strong cytopathogenic effect of the cells. To our knowledge, this is the third report on the isolation of S. cantharicola from mosquitoes.Species of the genus Spiroplasma are common within arthropods and plants worldwide. Mosquito-associated Spiroplasma spp. have been reported to show pathogenicity toward mosquitoes, which serve as vectors of several infectious diseases that have detrimental effects on public health. Although Spiroplasma spp. are expected to have potential use as biological vector-control tools, characteristics such as their distribution, host species, and cytopathogenic effects (CPEs) are not well understood. In this study, we isolated a Spiroplasma sp. from a female Aedes japonicus collected in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence indicated our isolate was closely related to S. cantharicola. We screened 103 mosquito pools consisting of 3 genera and 9 species, but only detected S. cantharicola in the first isolation. In an in vitro assay, our isolate grew well at 28 °C, but no propagation was observed at 37 °C. Furthermore, the isolate showed strong CPE on a mosquito-derived cultured cell line (C6/36), and its propagation slightly increased when co-cultured with C6/36 cells. To our knowledge, this is the third report of the isolation of S. cantharicola from mosquitoes and the first case in Asia. Our findings provide epidemiological data on S. cantharicola distribution in the region.

Continuous monitoring of aerial density and circadian rhythms of flying insects in a semi-urban environment.

Although small in size, insects are a quintessential part of terrestrial ecosystems due to their large number and diversity. While captured insects can be thoroughly studied in laboratory conditions, their population dynamics and abundance in the wild remain largely unknown due to the lack of accurate methodologies to count them. Here, we present the results of a field experiment where the activity of insects has been monitored continuously over 3 months using an entomological stand-off optical sensor (ESOS). Because its near-infrared laser is imperceptible to insects, the instrument provides an unbiased and absolute measurement of the aerial density (flying insect/m3) with a temporal resolution down to the minute. Multiple clusters of insects are differentiated based on their wingbeat frequency and ratios between wing and body optical cross-sections. The collected data allowed for the study of the circadian rhythm and daily activities as well as the aerial density dynamic over the whole campaign for each cluster individually. These measurements have been compared with traps for validation of this new methodology. We believe that this new type of data can unlock many of the current limitations in the collection of entomological data, especially when studying the population dynamics of insects with large impacts on our society, such as pollinators or vectors of infectious diseases.

The Lyme Borreliosis Spatial Footprint in the 21st Century: A Key Study of Slovenia.

After mosquitoes, ticks are the most important vectors of infectious diseases. They play an important role in public health. In recent decades, we discovered new tick-borne diseases; additionally, those that are already known are spreading to new areas because of climate change. Slovenia is an endemic region for Lyme borreliosis and one of the countries with the highest incidence of this disease on a global scale. Thus, the spatial pattern of Slovenian Lyme borreliosis prevalence was modelled with 246 indicators and transformed into 24 uncorrelated predictor variables that were applied in geographically weighted regression and regression tree algorithms. The projected potential shifts in Lyme borreliosis foci by 2050 and 2070 were calculated according to the RCP8.5 climate scenario. These results were further applied to developing a Slovenian Lyme borreliosis infection risk map, which could be used as a preventive decision support system.

History of hygiene, microbiology and epidemiology in the art of small forms: the past and the present

For the first time, more than 700 award, anniversary and commemorative badges reflecting the history of hygiene, microbiology and epidemiology were systematized and analyzed. The following directions are identified for studying the history of these medical specialties and educational and scientific disciplines with the help of epigraphy: 1) outstanding figures of hygiene, microbiology and epidemiology; 2) hygienic and epidemiological congresses, congresses and other forums; 3) specialized research institutions; 4) educational institutions and faculties of universities that train specialists in the field of hygiene, microbiology and epidemiology; 5) pathogens and vectors of infectious diseases; 6) methods of detecting microorganisms and treating infections; 7) the COVID-19 pandemic. The study showed that during the XX and XXI centuries a large number of badges (awards and commemorative) were issued, reflecting selected pages of the history of hygiene, microbiology and epidemiology. These faleristic objects related to the art of small forms are full-fledged primary sources for studying the history of these areas of medicine and objects for the collections of state, municipal and departmental museums of medical subjects. Signs with portraits of outstanding hygienists, microbiologists and epidemiologists can be used to study and illustrate their life and activities, contribution to science and perpetuate their memory. Epigraphy on the presented signs can help both in establishing the time of a particular fact or event in the past (for example, the dates of the life and activity of an outstanding scientist; the time, place and subject of the scientific forum, the opening date of the research institute, educational institution, faculty or department, etc.), and the specifics of conducting scientific research in the field of hygiene, microbiology and epidemiology (pathogens and vectors of diseases; concepts, devices and research methods, methods of diagnosis and prevention of infectious diseases, etc.).

Guidelines provided by aviation regulatory agencies and organizations during the H1N1 and COVID-19 outbreaks: a comparative analisys

Aviation has emerged as an additional and quicker vector for infectious diseases. Therefore, preparedness plans are put together to assist the public health and aviation sectors in a pandemic. This paper went through these preparedness plans, as well as the guidelines issued during two events, the H1N1 and COVID-19 pandemics, so to study, understand, assess and compare them. The method used was a thorough theoretical review supported by specific research questions, which are the basis for the analysis and discussion. The examination reveals consistent data which can work as a basis for measures of precaution and/ or mitigation of diseases.

Biocidal Activity of a Nanoemulsion Containing Essential Oil from Protium heptaphyllum Resin against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae).

This work aimed to prepare a nanoemulsion containing the essential oil of the Protium heptaphyllum resin and evaluate its biocidal activities against the different stages of development of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Ovicide, pupicide, adulticide and repellency assays were performed. The main constituents were p-cymene (27.70%) and α-pinene (22.31%). The developed nanoemulsion showed kinetic stability and monomodal distribution at a hydrophilic–lipophilic balance of 14 with a droplet size of 115.56 ± 1.68 nn and a zeta potential of −29.63 ± 3.46 mV. The nanoemulsion showed insecticidal action with LC50 0.404 µg·mL−1 for the ovicidal effect. In the pupicidal test, at the concentration of 160 µg·mL−1, 100% mortality was reached after 24 h. For adulticidal activity, a diagnostic concentration of 200 µg·mL−1 (120 min) was determined. In the repellency test, a concentration of 200 µg·mL−1 during the 180 min of the test showed a protection index of 77.67%. In conclusion, the nanobiotechnological product derived from the essential oil of P. heptaphyllum resin can be considered as a promising colloid that can be used to control infectious disease vectors through a wide range of possible modes of applications, probably as this bioactive delivery system may allow the optimal effect of the P. heptaphyllum terpenes in aqueous media and may also induce satisfactory delivery to air interfaces.

Imidacloprid Crystal Polymorphs for Disease Vector Control and Pollinator Protection.

Imidacloprid, the world's leading insecticide, has been approved recently for controlling infectious disease vectors; yet, in agricultural settings, it has been implicated in the frightening decline of pollinators. This argues for strategies that sharply reduce the environmental impact of imidacloprid. When used as a contact insecticide, the effectiveness of imidacloprid relies on physical contact between its crystal surfaces and insect tarsi. Herein, seven new imidacloprid crystal polymorphs are reported, adding to two known forms. Anticipating that insect uptake of imidacloprid molecules would depend on the respective free energies of crystal polymorph surfaces, measurements of insect knockdown times for the metastable crystal forms were as much as nine times faster acting than the commercial form against Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex mosquitoes as well as Drosophila (fruit flies). These results suggest that replacement of commercially available imidacloprid crystals (a.k.a. Form I) in space-spraying with any one of three new polymorphs, Forms IV, VI, IX, would suppress vector-borne disease transmission while reducing environmental exposure and harm to nontarget organisms.

Investigating the association of bed bugs with infectious diseases: A retrospective case-control study

Bed bugs are common urban pests. Unlike many other blood-feeding human ectoparasites, bed bugs are not known to be vectors of human infectious diseases, but clinical and epidemiological studies to directly interrogate this link have been limited. Here, we aimed to determine whether bed bugs were associated with infectious diseases in a set of infested patients presenting to emergency departments (ED) in the greater Cleveland, OH area. We performed a retrospective case-control study involving 332 ED patients with bed bugs and 4,952 control patients, seen from February 1, 2011, through February 1, 2017. Cases and controls were matched by age, sex, and the presenting ED. Additionally, data were adjusted for ≥20 sociodemographic variables, triage data, and comorbidities in multivariable regression analyses. Seventeen laboratory values, ten different ED and inpatient diagnoses, chest radiographs, infectious disease consults, and blood cultures were examined. The odds of bed bug infestation were significantly higher for patients that had positive blood cultures, had blood cultures growing coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, were diagnosed with pneumonia, were diagnosed with cellulitis, received an infectious disease consult, received a chest radiograph, and had higher percentages of eosinophils in the blood (P < .05 for all). Additional investigations are needed to determine whether bed bugs directly contribute to disease by transmitting causative agents, whether bed bug exposure contributes secondarily contributes to infections, or whether these associations are better explained by other environmental and social determinants of health.

Fly Trap From Waste: The Effectivity trap based Plastic Blue Bottle

Some species of flies act as vectors of infectious diseases mainly infectious diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Flies can not be completely eradicated but the number can be suppressed to an extent that is not harmful. One way to reduce the number of flies in the environment is by the use of flytraps. The study aims to test the effectiveness of bait variations on the flytrap of blue plastic bottle waste against the number of trapped flies. This research is a quasi-experiment with a posttest-only control design. Measurement of bait variations on the flytrap of blue plastic bottle waste with a flytrap under the chicken coop with a distance between the flytrap of 1 meter. Installing flytrap from 09.00 WITA until 13.00 WITA for 5 days in the same way. The results showed that the number of flies trapped in each flytrap is different. Flytrap with fish gill bait is most effective in attracting flies to be trapped as many as 281 flies and baits that are less favored by flies that are rotten tempeh bait as many as 6 flies for 5 days. Kruskall Wallis test showed that there was a difference in flies trapped in the plastic waste flytrap with variations of fish gill bait, chicken innards, shrimp paste, and rotten tempeh with a p-value of 0.022 &lt; 0.05. This study recommends the use of fish gills in controlling flies both in the home and market environment.

Probing an Ixodes ricinus salivary gland yeast surface display with tick-exposed human sera to identify novel candidates for an anti-tick vaccine

In Europe, Ixodes ricinus is the most important vector of human infectious diseases, most notably Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis virus. Multiple non-natural hosts of I. ricinus have shown to develop immunity after repeated tick bites. Tick immunity has also been shown to impair B. burgdorferi transmission. Most interestingly, multiple tick bites reduced the likelihood of contracting Lyme borreliosis in humans. A vaccine that mimics tick immunity could therefore potentially prevent Lyme borreliosis in humans. A yeast surface display library (YSD) of nymphal I. ricinus salivary gland genes expressed at 24, 48 and 72 h into tick feeding was constructed and probed with antibodies from humans repeatedly bitten by ticks, identifying twelve immunoreactive tick salivary gland proteins (TSGPs). From these, three proteins were selected for vaccination studies. An exploratory vaccination study in cattle showed an anti-tick effect when all three antigens were combined. However, immunization of rabbits did not provide equivalent levels of protection. Our results show that YSD is a powerful tool to identify immunodominant antigens in humans exposed to tick bites, yet vaccination with the three selected TSGPs did not provide protection in the present form. Future efforts will focus on exploring the biological functions of these proteins, consider alternative systems for recombinant protein generation and vaccination platforms and assess the potential of the other identified immunogenic TSGPs.

Environmental determinants of the occurrence and activity of Ixodes ricinus ticks and the prevalence of tick-borne diseases in eastern Poland

Ixodes ricinus is the most widely distributed tick species in Europe. Mainly deciduous and mixed forests, pastures, and urban parks are habitats preferred by this species. I. ricinus ticks are also one of the most important reservoirs and vectors of human and animal infectious diseases on the continent. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes causing Lyme borreliosis (LB) in humans and tick borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), which is a causative agent of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), are pathogens with the highest medical importance transmitted by this species. Investigations of the environmental determinants of the occurrence and activity of I. ricinus are crucial for elucidation of the environmental background of tick-borne diseases. In eastern Poland, I. ricinus is a common species with peak activity recorded in May in the entire region. During this period, 49 females, 32 males, and 55 I. ricinus nymphs were collected from an area of 900 m2. The results of the present study show that the occurrence and seasonal activity of this tick species are mainly influenced by microhabitat conditions, and saturation deficit has a significant effect on the activity of the species. Eastern Poland is characterized by a high incidence of LB and TBE. We have shown a correlation between the forest cover and the number of reported cases of tick-borne diseases.

Modeling the Risk of Infectious Diseases Transmitted by Aedes aegypti Using Survival and Aging Statistical Analysis with a Case Study in Colombia

Many infectious diseases are deadly to humans. The Aedes aegypi mosquito is the principal vector of infectious diseases that include chikungunya, dengue, yellow fever, and zika. Some factors such as survival time and aging are vital in its development and capacity to transmit the pathogens, which in turn are affected by environmental factors such as temperature. In this paper, we consider aging as the biological wear and tear presented in some mosquito populations over time, whereas survival is considered as the maximum time that a mosquito lives. We propose statistical methods that are commonly used in engineering for reliability analysis to compare transmission riskiness among different mosquitoes. We conducted a case study in three Colombian cities: Bello, Riohacha, and Villavicencio. In this study, we detected that the Aedes aegypi female mosquitoes in Bello live longer than in Riohacha and Villavicencio, and the females in Riohacha live longer than those in Villavicencio. Regarding aging, the females from Riohacha age slower than in Villavicencio and the latter age slower than in Bello. Mosquito populations that age slower are considered young and the other ones are old. In addition, we detected that the females from Bello in the temperature range of 27 ∘C–28 ∘C age slower than those in Bello at higher temperatures. In general, a young female has a higher risk of transmitting a disease to humans than an old female, regardless of its survival time. These findings have not been previously reported in studies of this type of infectious diseases and contributed to new knowledge in biomedicine.

Immunopeptidomics for next-generation bacterial vaccine development.

Antimicrobial resistance is an increasing global threat and alternative treatments substituting failing antibiotics are urgently needed. Vaccines are recognized as highly effective tools to mitigate antimicrobial resistance; however, the selection of bacterial antigens as vaccine candidates remains challenging. In recent years, advances in mass spectrometry-based proteomics have led to the development of so-called immunopeptidomics approaches that allow the untargeted discovery of bacterial epitopes that are presented on the surface of infected cells. Especially for intracellular bacterial pathogens, immunopeptidomics holds great promise to uncover antigens that can be encoded in viral vector- or nucleic acid-based vaccines. This review provides an overview of immunopeptidomics studies on intracellular bacterial pathogens and considers future directions and challenges in advancing towards next-generation vaccines.