Vector-borne Parasitic Infections Research Articles

Cutaneous leishmaniasis and iron metabolism: current insights and challenges

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne parasitic infection induced by protozoa of the genus Leishmania. The disease spectrum ranges from skin lesions to visceral leishmaniasis, which is fatal if untreated. The cutaneous leishmaniasis is characterized by a clinical polymorphism of lesions with a broad range of severity ranging from a self-limited lesion to multiple disfiguring lesions stigmatizing the patient for life. Although iron is required for several process of Leishmania infection including survival, growth and virulence, the number of studies on host iron metabolism during this infection remains limited. Iron homeostasis in the body is finely regulated by hepcidin, a hyposideremic peptide highly expressed in the liver. In infectious contexts, hepcidin plays additionally an antimicrobial role, acting through various mechanisms such as retaining iron in tissues, modulating the immune response, and operating as a defensin against gram-negative bacteria. This review mainly summarizes the most important interconnections between iron metabolism, hepcidin and leishmaniasis. A deeper understanding of iron metabolism in this context could help in developing innovative treatment strategies that target the parasite while simultaneously reinforcing host defenses.

Educational intervention to raise awareness and foster responsibility for Chagas disease risk factors in the rural community of Texca, Guerrero, Mexico.”

Problem consideredChagas disease is a vector-borne parasitic infection considered of public health importance. For farmers and residents of endemic areas, vectors are part of their day to day life and they often lack awareness of their infectious potential, so the risk they pose is not a main concern in their lives. So far, existing measures set in place to eradicate the vector have not been effective long-term. MethodsIn this study, a one-year program was designed and implemented to inform and assess the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of 81 parents or heads of household regarding the risk of transmission and prevention of Trypanosoma cruzi infection. The program aimed to raise awareness of the crucial role they play in the prevention and control of vectors associated with Chagas disease. ResultsAfter educational interventions, a notable increase in the percentage of knowledge regarding the parasite, transmission factors, and Chagas disease was observed. ConclusionThis might suggest that properly implementing educational interventions within the population, with training from health professionals and through public programs, will allow for the reduction of infection risks. In the long term, it could significantly reduce the incidence of the disease in the region and state.

Antiparasitic effect of Farnesol against Leishmania major: A rationale from in vitro and in silico investigations.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne parasitic infection caused by the infective bite of female Phlebotomine sandflies. Treatment of leishmaniasis by conventional synthetic compounds is met by challenges pertaining to adverse effects which call for the discovery of newer anti-leishmanial molecules. This study was performed to evaluate the effect and modes of action of a sesquiterpene alcoholic molecule Farnesol on Leishmania major, the causative agent of Zoonotic CL. The cytotoxic effect of Farnesol against L.major promastigotes, amastigotes and macrophages was assessed by MTT test and counting. The IC50 on promastigotes by Farnesol on L.major was also evaluated by flow cytometry. In the findings, promastigotes were reduced at 167μM. The mean numbers of L.major amastigotes in macrophages were significantly decreased on exposure to Farnesol at 172μM. In addition, Farnesol induced significant apoptosis dose-dependent on L.major promastigotes. In silico protein-ligand_binding analyses indicated the effect of Farnesol in perturbation of the ergosterol synthesis pathway of Leishmania with attributes suggesting inhibition of Lanosterol-α-demethylase, the terminal enzyme of ergosterol synthesis machinery. Findings from flow cytometry reveal the role of Farnesol in apoptosis-induced killing in promastigotes. Farnesol was effective at very lower concentrations when compared to Paromomycin. Further studies are crucial to evaluate the therapeutic potential of Farnesol alone or in combination with other conventional drugs in animal models.

Vector-borne parasitic infections after the earthquake

The transmission of vector-borne infections after an earthquake is related to the changes in the environment caused by the earthquake. The displacement of thousands of people, especially in areas where vector-borne diseases are endemic, can significantly increase human exposure to mosquitoes and other vectors and the pathogens they may carry in overcrowded environments and inappropriate temporary shelters, leading to an increase in human infection cases. The devastating earthquakes in Türkiye on 6 February 2023 pose a risk of the spread and outbreaks of vector-borne infections such as cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and malaria, which are endemic in the region. Public health authorities should prioritise surveillance in all earthquake-affected areas. Immediate detection and identification of local vector species, monitor environmental conditions and potential breeding grounds, insecticide application and use of mosquito nets and development of interventions to prevent the emergence of vector-borne infections are essential. Case diagnosis and treatment follow-up, prophylaxis, training of the public and health personnel, improving temporary shelter conditions and facilitating access to clean drinking water and health services are essential to minimise the impact of vector-borne infections in post-earthquake situations.

Evolutionary outlook on the impending endgame of malaria

Malaria is a highly debilitating vector-borne parasitic infection which has been known to be mortal and morbid to human beings for centuries now. As of today, the success rate of effective control strategies is less; however there have been several riveting developments. These include: 1. A global incidence of decrease in malaria cases; 2. The development of several non-malaria transmissible transgenic mosquitoes and 3. The launch of the vaccine has been a game changer as it is now being given to children with the success rate being high. In this review, we discuss if the current control strategies in place and the launch of the vaccine and its speculated success in children has become/been a game changer. Our take on the coevolution of parasites and vector can be the answer to the questions above. We highlight that parasites and vectors have evolved together for millions of years now, and to break this liaison will not be as easy.

In Vitro Efficacy of the Venome of Black Scorpion (Androctonus crassicauda) on Leishmania tropica Promastigotes

Scorpion venom is a substance that shows strong neurotoxic effects with its complex protein content and thus plays an important role for the scorpion in catching and digesting the hunt. Human body stung by a scorpion can show life-threatening systemic effects in a short time, ranging from erythema, pain, edema and local fever to abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, diplopia and even coma. Scorpion venome is known to possess antimicrobial activity, and some of its compounds have potent antibacterial and antifungal activities. Leishmaniasis is a common vector-borne parasitic infection caused by Leishmania sp. protozoa and can lead skin, mucosa and fatal internal organs involvement in patients . There is a need for new drugs in the treatment of leishmaniasis, because it has been documented lately that there is a growing resistance against antimonial compounds which have been used in its treatment for decades. Leishmania species are known to be susceptible to antimicrobial peptides that act as ion-channel inhibitors, which are known to be present in scorpion venome. In this study, it was aimed to investigate the anti-leishmanial activity of scorpion venome extract obtained from Androctonus crassicauda species in our country. In this context, Leishmania tropica promastigotes which were thawed from liquid nitrogen in our laboratory and first grown in NNN and then RPMI-1640 media, were exposed to different dilutions of the extract containing A.crassicauda venom and meglumine antimonate used in the standard treatment of leishmaniasis and the efficacies on the promastigotes were compared and measured in vitro. This was followed by XTT cell viability test, which assessed whether anti-leishmanial dose of the extract was lethal for human cells or not. Trials showed that the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of the venome extract and meglumine antimoniate were 18.12 µg/ml (17.33-18.94) and 8.411 µg/ml (7.922- 8.927), respectively. This preliminary study showed that scorpion venome can be lethal on L.tropica promastigotes in vitro, on relatively higher doses compared to meglumine antimonate. Next step will be to determine the anti-leishmanial proteins in the extract and thus to identify new drug candidates with more specific studies.

Current Epidemiological Characteristics of Imported Malaria, Vector Control Status and Malaria Elimination Prospects in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries.

Malaria is the most common vector-borne parasitic infection causing significant human morbidity and mortality in nearly 90 tropical/sub-tropical countries worldwide. Significant differences exist in the incidence of malaria cases, dominant Plasmodium species, drug-resistant strains and mortality rates in different countries. Six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates, UAE) in the Middle East region with similar climates, population demographics and economic prosperity are aiming to achieve malaria elimination. In this narrative review, all studies indexed in PubMed describing epidemiological characteristics of indigenous and imported malaria cases, vector control status and how malaria infections can be controlled to achieve malaria elimination in GCC countries were reviewed and discussed. These studies have shown that indigenous malaria cases are absent in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and UAE and have progressively declined in Oman and Saudi Arabia. However, imported malaria cases continue to occur as GCC countries have large expatriate populations originating from malaria-endemic countries. Various malaria control and prevention strategies adopted by GCC countries including more stringent measures to reduce the likelihood of importing malaria cases by prior screening of newly arriving expatriates and vector elimination programs are likely to lead to malaria elimination in this region.

Current Status and the Epidemiology of Malaria in the Middle East Region and Beyond

Vector-borne parasitic infectious diseases are important causes of morbidity and mortality globally. Malaria is one of the most common vector-borne parasitic infection and is caused by five Plasmodium species, namely P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. Epidemiologically, differences in the patterns of malaria cases, causative agent, disease severity, antimicrobial resistance, and mortality exist across diverse geographical regions. The world witnessed 229 million malaria cases which resulted in 409,000 deaths in 2019 alone. Although malaria cases are reported from 87 countries globally, Africa bears the brunt of these infections and deaths as nearly 94% of total malaria cases and deaths occur in this continent, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the Middle East Region countries are malaria-free as no indigenous cases of infection have been described in recent years. However, imported cases of malaria continue to occur as some of these countries. Indeed, the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have large expatriate population originating from malaria endemic countries. In this review, the current status and epidemiology of malaria in the Middle East Region countries and other malaria-endemic countries that are home to a large migrant workforce being employed in Middle East Region countries are discussed.

Worldwide Epidemiology of Plasmodium Vivax Malaria and its Clinical Management

Plasmodium vivax malaria is one of the most common vector-borne parasitic infections worldwide. P. vivax clinical manifestations include lung injury, renal dysfunction, hepatic dysfunction and extreme thrombocytopenia etc. P. vivax contributes around 70% of malaria cases in Pakistan with variable severity, but 47% of total severe vivax malaria cases have been reported in India. Elimination of P. vivax is very difficult because of its ability to form dormant stages of the liver. Insecticidetreated nets and insecticides are used to control malaria in malaria-endemic regions. Chloroquine is used as the first line of the agent in P. vivax malaria treatment. ACTs are also very effective because of their fast medical and parasitological response than that of chloroquine. Due to increasing drug resistance among P. vivax, scientists have tested with mass drug administration to eradicate malaria. In spite of all this, the P. vivax vaccine would be the last resort in the eradication of P. vivax malaria.

Sex-biased parasitism in vector-borne disease: Vector preference?

Sex-biased infections are a recurrent observation in vertebrates. In many species, males are more parasitized than females. Two potentially complementary mechanisms are often suggested to explain this pattern: sexual differences in susceptibility mainly caused by the effect of sex hormones on immunity and differential exposure to parasites. Exposure is mostly a consequence of host behavioural traits, but vector-borne parasitic infections involve another degree of complexity due to the active role of vectors in transmission. Blood-sucking insects may make choices based on cues produced by hosts. Regarding malaria, several studies highlighted a male-biased infection by Plasmodium sp in great tits (Parus major). We hypothesize that the mosquito vector, Culex pipiens, might at least partially cause this bias by being more attracted to male birds. Intrinsic variation associated to bird sex would explain a preference of mosquitoes for males. To test this hypothesis, we provide uninfected mosquitoes with a choice between uninfected male and female nestlings. Mosquito choice is assessed by sex typing of the ingested blood. We did not observe any preference for a given sex. This result does not support our prediction of a preference of mosquitoes for male great tits during the nestling period. In conclusion, mosquitoes do not seem to have an intrinsic preference for male nestlings. However, sexually divergent traits (e.g. behaviour, odour, metabolic rate) present in adults may play a role in the attraction of mosquitoes and should be investigated.

Molecular investigation of vector-borne parasitic infections in dogs in Northeast India

BackgroundInformation on the status of vector-borne pathogens among canines in Northeast India is lacking, particularly for the states of Mizoram and Tripura close to the Myanmar border. Blood samples collected from 130 dogs, 80 from Mizoram and 50 from Tripura, were examined in this study.MethodsPolymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed for filariid worms, Babesia, Hepatozoon, Ehrlichia and Anaplasma spp. and DNA sequencing was then carried out to identify pathogens at the species level.ResultsVector-borne pathogens were detected in 52% (68/130) of the sampled dogs. The most prevalent pathogen was Babesia gibsoni detected in 56/130 (43%) dogs, followed by Hepatozoon canis in 50/130 (38%), Anaplasma platys in 4/130 (3%), B. vogeli in 4/130 (3%), Acanthochelionema reconditum in 3/130 (2%) and Dirofilaria immitis in 2/130 (2%). Forty-four dogs (34%) were co-infected with two or more pathogens. The most common co-infection observed was with B. gibsoni + H. canis (34%) followed by triple-infection with B. gibsoni + H. canis + A. platys (3%), and B. gibsoni + B. vogeli + H. canis (3%). The infection rate was higher in Mizoram (58%) than in Tripura (44%).ConclusionsThe high prevalence of infection in the studied dog population, especially with B. gibsoni and H. canis, indicates that vector-borne diseases pose a serious threat to the health of dogs in this area of Northeast India. Prevention of vector-borne diseases by using topical acaricides and heartworm preventative treatment would be of great benefit for reducing the threat of vector-borne diseases in the study area.

Do the rodents have a role in transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Turkey?

Leishmaniasis is a zoonotic/anthroponotic vector borne parasitic infection which is caused by Leishmania species and transmitted by sand flies (Phlebotomus spp.) The reservoirs of Leishmania species in nature are various wild and domestic carnivores, rodents and human. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the rodents in genera Meriones, Mesocricetus, Rattus and Mus which inhabit in the natural habitat of our country could be natural reservoirs of Leishmania tropica, Leishmania infantum, Leishmania major and Leishmania donovani for cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL)., The rodents Mus musculus (Balb/C mouse), Mesocricetus auratus (hamster), Meriones unguiculatus (gerbil) and Rattus norvegicus (rat) which are part of the natural habitat in Turkey were used in the study. L.tropica, L.infantum, L.major and L.donovani promastigote isolates obtained from CL patients and cultured in enriched media were injected in the footpads of the animals intradermally using the density of 108 promastigote/ml. The scale of the lesions on the footpads of the animals were measured for 12 weeks. At the end of the experiment, the animals were sacrificed and "touch preparations" were prepared using footpad, liver, spleen and testicles of the sacrified animals and were examined using Giemsa stained slides following culturing in enriched NNN medium. Leishmania amastigotes were seen in the slides prepared from the footpads of the all experimental animals and all cultures were positive for promastigotes prepared from the same clinical material. But not all the experiment groups were positive for the liver, spleen and testicle preparations. According to these results it was concluded that while all rodents in the experiment groups were positive for CL, only a part of the experiment groups were positive for internal organ involvement. Accordingly, (a) All Leishmania strains caused both CL and internal organ involvement in M.unguiculatus and M.musculus, (b) only L.tropica caused CL and internal organ involvement in R.norvegicus, while other Leishmania strains only caused CL in this group, (c) in M.auratus only L.donovani caused CL while other strains caused both CL and internal organ involvement. In our study, it was determined that the rodents Meriones, Mesocricetus, Rattus and Mus genera which are part of our country's natural habitat could serve as natural reservoirs of L.tropica, L.infantum, L.major and L.donovani, thus having the potential for the spreading of Leishmaniasis in our country and important information were gathered concerning the clinical aspects of the infection caused by Leishmania species in their potential reservoir hosts.

Identification of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as a Novel Reservoir Species forTrypanosoma cruziin Texas, USA

Chagas disease, a vector-borne parasitic infection caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, represents a significant source of morbidity and mortality in the Americas. Mammalian reservoir species play a large role in propagating the sylvatic transmission cycle of this disease, and this cycle can spill over, resulting in human infections. Our understanding of the wildlife species implicated in propagating this transmission cycle is incomplete. We investigated white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) as a potential novel reservoir for this parasite. Only one of the 314 hunter-harvested deer hearts collected across Texas, was PCR-positive (0.3%) for T. cruzi. This finding has potential implications for deer hunters, because it indicates that there might be a risk of blood-borne transmission during the field-dressing process. Hunters should be strongly encouraged to wear gloves and other personal protective equipment when handling carcasses to prevent exposure to infected blood.

Vector-borne parasitic infections in dogs in the Baltic and Nordic countries: A questionnaire study to veterinarians on canine babesiosis and infections with Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens

Canine vector-borne diseases have been spreading northwards in Europe, and canine babesiosis and infections with Dirofilaria immitis (heartworm) and Dirofilaria repens have been diagnosed also in the Baltic and the Nordic countries. We used an online questionnaire to survey how large a proportion of veterinarians in the Baltic (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) and the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) saw canine babesiosis cases and dogs infected with D. immitis and D. repens in 2016. In addition, questions regarding transmission, zoonotic potential, clinical signs, and treatment of the infections were asked. The questionnaire was completed by 122 veterinarians. In 2016, 23% of them had seen at least one case of canine babesiosis, 15% at least one dog with D. immitis infection, and 9% at least one dog with D. repens infection. A veterinarian working in the Baltic countries had 12.2 times higher odds to have seen a canine babesiosis case and 9.3 times higher odds to have seen a dog with D. repens infection than a veterinarian working in the Nordic countries did. While 48% of the veterinarians knew that canine babesiosis is not considered a zoonosis, 26% knew that D. immitis is zoonotic and 34% knew that D. repens is zoonotic. The results suggested that autochthonous cases of the three vector-borne parasitic infections were seen by veterinarians in the Baltic countries, whereas most cases seen by veterinarians in the Nordic countries appeared to be imported. A substantial proportion of the veterinarians did not know whether the parasites are zoonotic.

Prevalence of mosquito-borne Plasmodium infection in patients attending fever clinic in a tertiary-care teaching hospital, western India

Background: Malaria is a serious vector-borne parasitic infection worldwide in distribution, and it is still one of the important causes of morbidity and mortality in India. In a developing country such as India, it has dramatic socioeconomic consequences. Objective: To study the prevalence of fever cases being diagnosed as malaria and to determine the trend of malaria. Materials and Methods: The blood samples of about 2,047 patients who presented with fever between the time period of May 2014 and April 2015 were examined by peripheral blood smear (PBS) for malaria. Result: In this study, the blood samples of 2,047 fever cases suspected for malaria were sent for diagnosis to a microbiology laboratory in a tertiary-care teaching hospital. Among those, 48 (2.34%) of them showed positivity for malaria. According to the types of Plasmodium spp., Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum accounted for 95.83% and 4.17% of malaria cases, respectively. The prevalence of malarial infection exhibited seasonal trend with many cases from the month of May to November with a peak in September. Malaria was reported in all age groups and both sexes, but commonly affected age group were between 21 and 30 years of age, and male patients were affected more than two times than the female patients. Conclusion: This study about the survey on malaria reflected seasonal malarial transmission, and P. vivax was the most common type of malaria parasite. The lower socioeconomic and the younger aged groups were the mostly affected, causing serious health problems.

Immunopotentiating nano-chitosan as potent vaccine carter for efficacious prophylaxis of filarial antigens

Lymphatic filariasis (LF), a morbid vector-borne parasitic infection affects millions in tropical areas. Complete eradication can only be achieved by the development of a potent vaccine. Among the various filarial antigens that have been characterized, antigens Brugia malayi thioredoxin (TRX) and abundant larval transcript (ALT) have produced recognizable level of protection in Jirds, thereby evidenced to be good vaccine candidates. In this study an attempt was made to enhance their immunoprophylactic activity by encapsulating them in natural polysaccharide chitosan forming nanospheres (CN). High encapsulation efficiency for TRX (93%) in CN (TCN) and ALT-2 (90%) in CN (ACN) was achieved. Morphological studies confirmed the spherical and uniform distribution of nanospheres to be 220nm. The electrostatic interaction between chitosan and the antigens were confirmed using differential scanning calorimetry and FT-IR. The study revealed the immunostimulatory property of chitosan providing enhanced level of proliferation for encapsulated antigens in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from endemic normal personals, at low concentration (TCN mean stimulation index (SI)=4.23±0.15 and ACN (SI)=4.05±0.33) compared to stimulation obtained by antigens alone. Hence, our study demonstrated that natural macromolecule derived CN can be used as efficacious immunostimulatory vaccine carter for LF thereby diminishing pathological sequel.

Introduction to the Special Issue on Epidemiology and Ecology of Parasitic Diseases

Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), commonly known as sleeping sickness is a vector-borne parasitic infection caused by protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma. It can be fatal if left untreated. HAT is found in sub-Saharan Africa, but is restricted to the range of its tsetse vector. In recent decades, the foci of HAT infections have changed and it has been suggested that climate change and changes to the habitats of the tsetse vectors have influenced the observed changes. The paper by Tongue et al. clearly demonstrates the effects of habitat change on the transmission of African trypanosomiasis. Certain subspecies of Glossina have adjusted to the decrease in natural habitats by exhibiting peri-domestic behaviors that allow them to live in urban and suburban habitats near humans. The increase in urban and suburban habitats for subspecies of the tsetse vector Glossina has reduced the effectiveness of efforts to control, much less eliminate, transmission of the causative species Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (causes the acute form of the disease) and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (causes the chronic from of the disease). This study provides a cautionary tale about the influence of habitat changes and climate change on the future of HAT transmission (and other pathogens), assuming these changes continue to occur. In the next study, we move west off of the continent of Africa to consider a species of mosquito in the genusCulex and its possible role in the transmission of Dirofilaria immitis, the primary causative agent of heartworm disease. Although the Canary Islands are a known endemic focus of Dirofilaria immitis, the mosquito vector on the island has, heretofore, not been identified. This article by Morchon Garcia et al. provides convincing evidence that they found the mosquito species that serves as the vector of D. immitis on the islands. Five potential vector species of mosquitoes were collected on the islands. Using molecular biological techniques, the authors identified one species of mosquito, Culex theileri, which was infected with D. immitis. Recent studies in Iran [4] and Spain [5] suggest that C. theileri is a competent vector species. In addition, comparing analyses of the mtDNA in the cox1 gene between C. theileri populations in the Canary Islands and Iran suggest that the two populations are molecularly similar. Although the results of this study are supportive of the role of C. theileri in the transmission of D. immitis in the Canary Islands, the authors caution that additional studies are required to conclusively support their suggestions. Our next study takes us to Asia and consideration of the status of Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) in Iran. In his review, Mohebali combines his personal experience with numerous (>3,000) cases of leishmaniasis in Iran with results obtained from a search of databases from 1996 through 2010. The author’s results suggest that canids serve as the primary reservoir hosts of infection of humans a result found in previous studies [6]. Several species of Phlebotomus serve the insect vectors in Iran. In Iran, VL appears to be a disease of the young as children 12 years of age and younger made up 92.8% of the reported cases of VL during the time span under review. Mohebali found that the direct agglutination test was an effective means of detecting antiLeishmania antibodies and recommended it as a surveillance tool. The author concluded that VL is a serious zoonotic threat in Iran with sporadic prevalence in most geographic zones while being endemic in northwestern and southern Iran. Finally, we go further east and north to Mongolia where Papageorgiou et al. examined the epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens in two of the country’s provinces (aimags). Livestock were investigated using serology and PCR to identify exposure and infection

Serum Proteomics for Visceral Leishmaniasis: Promise of Postgenomics Diagnostics for Public Health in Developing Countries

Visceral leishmaniasis is a vector borne parasitic infection caused by Leishmania donovani or Leishmania infantum, mostly in poorer sections of the population in endemic areas. More than 90% of the cases occur in just six countries, namely, Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Nepal and Sudan. In the Indian subcontinent where the disease is caused by infection with L. donovani, man is the only host. Hence, the key to eradication of this disease is the proper treatment of the cases and the prevention of spread. Moreover, untreated visceral leishmaniasis is always fatal. The diagnosis of the infection involves invasive procedures. Adverse drug reactions for existing drugs are severe and drug resistance is an increasing problem. There is an urgent need for an early diagnosis of this infection. Equally important is the discovery of effective treatment methods with less or no side effects. The advent of genomics and proteomics has bestowed us with powerful theoretical and experimental tools. These have opened us vistas, which we previously thought as practically impossible to explore. We know now that there are many host alleles, which can attenuate the severity of the disease. Patients carrying these alleles must have different treatment mode than the other patients. Identification of these patients is within the realms of proteomics. Serum immune proteomics have identified many antigens, which can serve as future vaccination candidates. Proteomics reveals the differential protein expression in the infected serum. Genomics differentiates the host and pathogen genes. Both of these “Omics” approaches are complementary. Their strength is that these tools identify the global differential expression enabling disease markers as well as the individual variations enabling personalized medicine. Genomics and proteomics, therefore, have much to offer for advancement of the juxtaposed goals in therapeutics and diagnostics (i.e., theranostics) for visceral leishmaniasis, and neglected diseases of importance for global public health.

Systematic review of the distribution of the major vector-borne parasitic infections in dogs and cats in Europe

On the basis of a systematic review of the literature, this paper provides the first evidence-based maps of the distribution of the major vector-borne parasitic infections of dogs and cats...