Vector-borne Diseases Research Articles

Climate change and its impact on infectious diseases in Asia.

Climate change, particularly increasing temperature, changes in rainfall, extreme weather events and changes in vector ecology, impacts the transmission of many climate-sensitive infectious diseases. Asia is the world's most populous, rapidly evolving and diverse continent, and it is already experiencing the effects of climate change. Climate change intersects with population, sociodemographic and geographical factors, amplifying the public health impact of infectious diseases and potentially widening existing disparities. In this narrative review, we outline the evidence of the impact of climate change on infectious diseases of importance in Asia, including vector-borne diseases, food- and water-borne diseases, antimicrobial resistance and other infectious diseases. We also highlight the imperative need for strategic intersectoral collaboration at the national and global levels and for the health sector to implement adaptation and mitigation measures, including responsibility for its own greenhouse gas emissions.

Upsurge of dengue outbreaks in several WHO regions: Public awareness, vector control activities, and international collaborations are key to prevent spread.

Dengue, the world's fastest-growing vector-borne disease, has skyrocketed in the 21st century. Dengue has harmed human health since its first known cases among Spanish soldiers in the Philippines to its 21st-century outbreaks in Southeast Asia, the Pacific, and the Americas. In light of the current circumstances, it is imperative to investigate its origin and prevalence, enabling the implementation of effective interventions to curb the upsurge. Our study examines the history of dengue outbreaks, and evolving impact on public health, aiming to offer valuable insights for a more resilient public health response worldwide. In this comprehensive review, we incorporated data from renowned databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus to provide a thorough analysis of dengue outbreaks. Recent dengue outbreaks are associated with rapid urbanization, international travel, climatic change, and socioeconomic factors. Rapid urbanization and poor urban design and sanitation have created mosquito breeding places for dengue vectors. Also, international travel and trade have spread the pathogen. Climate change in the past two decades has favored mosquito habitats and outbreaks. Socioeconomic differences have also amplified the impact of dengue outbreaks on vulnerable communities. Dengue mitigation requires vector control, community engagement, healthcare strengthening, and international cooperation. Climate change adaptation and urban planning are crucial. Although problems remain, a comprehensive vector control and community involvement plan may reduce dengue epidemics and improve public health in our interconnected world.

Toxic Impact of Chlorpyrifos Insecticide on the Ovary of Pigeon (Columba Livia Domestica)

Modern agriculture and vector-borne diseases are responsible for the rapid increase in pesticide usage, which is harmful to animals, particularly birds. The declining in the diversity of bird’s species is a major concern Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is the commonly used insecticide in agriculture sector. Unfortunately, CPF is still being applied across the world. Objective: To evaluate the toxic impact of chlorpyrifos on the ovaries of the pigeon in relation to the reproductive toxicity. Methods: For this purpose, N=80 healthy (Columba Livia domestica) pigeons were used. Pigeons had been acclimated for fifteen (15) days and divided into four equal groups (A-D) Oral dosages 1.3 mg, 1.6 mg, and 2.1 mg per kg body weight per day of chlorpyrifos (CPF) were administered respectively to group B, C and D for 84 consecutive days and pigeons from group (A) assigned as control. Daily observations were made on stress-related signs and behavioral changes. (H & E) staining method was applied to examine histological change in the ovary of pigeons after exposure to CPF, likewise for the control. Results: Birds from groups B-D displayed notable clinical signs such as: tremors, salivation, open-mouth breathing, ruffled feathers, lethargy and watery diarrhea and reduced food intake. The Histological examinations revealed that the ovary of pigeons from the B, C, and D showed notable variations such as follicular degeneration, vacuolation, hypertrophy, and fibrosis after exposure to CPF. The intensity was on high doses as compared to control which were with normal ovarian articulation small containing big follicles of all diameters. Oocytes, thecal layers, granulosa layers (g), stromal Tissue, and nucleus contained yolk-like secondary oocytes, mature follicles. Conclusions: In current study it was concluded that, the CPF produced drastic impact on the ovary of pigeon that may be associated with alterations in reproduction.

Application of satellite imagery for vector-borne disease monitoring in sub-Saharan Africa: An overview

This work presents an overview of the application of satellite imagery or remote sensing (RS) data for vector-borne disease (VBD) monitoring in sub-Saharan Africa. We discussed the different vector-borne disease conditions that are prevalent and endemic in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and how satellite imagery (RS data) can be used in monitoring these conditions. Key disease conditions considered include malaria, human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, lymphatic filariasis, loa loa filariasis, rift valley fever, dengue, yellow fever, and rickettsioses. Furthermore, we explored some of the current ways remote sensing data and geographical information systems (GIS) are being applied to monitoring these diseases. We discuss the efficacy of using strong spatial modelling techniques combined with RS data to enhance our comprehension of the role that environmental conditions play in influencing VBD vectors and transmission alongside the utilization of GIS/RS technologies for vector-borne illness surveillance, prevention, and control. Finally, we discussed how drone technology and new remote sensing platforms can provide improved monitoring and the impact of such improvements from a population health standpoint.

GIS-based Social Vulnerability Integration for Robust Flood Response, Disease Prevention and Community Resilience in Chennai Metropolitan Area post-Cyclone Michaung

The present study outlines a comprehensive strategy for flood response, disease prevention and long-term community resilience in the aftermath of a recent Cyclone Michaung, with the proximity of landfall near Chennai and the increased likelihood of flooding in the CMA. Drawing insights from an existing social vulnerability map, the study addresses the unique challenges posed by flooding and aims to mitigate the heightened risk of waterborne and vector-borne diseases. Objectives encompass assessing social vulnerability, formulating a targeted flood response strategy, implementing healthcare interventions for disease prevention, strengthening information dissemination and advocating for long-term resilience planning. The methodology involves reviewing the existing vulnerability map, identifying vulnerable communities, integrating flood impact data and developing a comprehensive response plan. The study utilizes GIS and Remote Sensing technologies for monitoring and assessing the results. Key findings from the social vulnerability assessment inform prioritized intervention areas for both flood response and disease prevention. The discussion interprets results in the context of strategy effectiveness, emphasizing the significance of a nuanced and inclusive approach. This manuscript serves as a guide for stakeholders in implementing a holistic strategy that addresses immediate concerns, prevents disease outbreaks and fosters long-term community resilience.

The updated genome of the Hungarian population of Aedes koreicus

Vector-borne diseases pose a potential risk to human and animal welfare, and understanding their spread requires genomic resources. The mosquito Aedes koreicus is an emerging vector that has been introduced into Europe more than 15 years ago but only a low quality, fragmented genome was available. In this study, we carried out additional sequencing and assembled and characterized the genome of the species to provide a background for understanding its evolution and biology. The updated genome was 1.1 Gbp long and consisted of 6099 contigs with an N50 value of 329,610 bp and a BUSCO score of 84%. We identified 22,580 genes that could be functionally annotated and paid particular attention to the identification of potential insecticide resistance genes. The assessment of the orthology of the genes indicates a high turnover at the terminal branches of the species tree of mosquitoes with complete genomes, which could contribute to the adaptation and evolutionary success of the species. These results could form the basis for numerous downstream analyzes to develop targets for the control of mosquito populations.

Impact of Climate Change on Vector-Borne Diseases in Wildlife

Purpose: This study sought to investigate the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases in wildlife.
 Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library.
 Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to climate change on vector-borne diseases in wildlife. Preliminary empirical review revealed that that environmental shifts, driven by climate change, profoundly influenced the distribution and transmission dynamics of diseases among wildlife populations. Through a comprehensive review of empirical studies, it was found that warmer temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events expanded vector habitats, increasing disease exposure for wildlife. The research emphasized the importance of interdisciplinary approaches and proactive measures, such as habitat restoration and disease surveillance, to mitigate disease risks and promote ecosystem resilience. Overall, the study highlighted the urgent need to address the interconnected challenges of climate change, vector-borne diseases, and wildlife health to safeguard environmental and human well-being.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Ecological Niche theory, Disease Ecology theory and One Health theory may be used to anchor future studies on climate change on vector-borne diseases in wildlife. The study provided recommendations that contributed to theory, practice, and policy. From a theoretical perspective, it emphasized the need for interdisciplinary research to understand the complex interactions between climate change, vector populations, and disease transmission. Practically, the study recommended adaptive management strategies, such as habitat restoration and disease surveillance, to mitigate disease risks in wildlife. Policy-wise, it called for integrating climate resilience and biodiversity conservation efforts, along with public education campaigns and international cooperation, to address the transboundary nature of vector-borne disease threats. Overall, these recommendations aimed to build resilience in ecosystems, protect biodiversity, and ensure the health of wildlife populations amidst climate change.

AEDES AEGYPTI KNOCKDOWN RESISTANCE MUTATIONS AND DENGUE VIRUS INFECTION IN HAITI.

Haiti is home to approximately 11 million people and has a high incidence of vector-borne disease, including more than 70,000 cases of dengue per year. Vector control is difficult in Haiti and adulticide spray of malathion is the main method of control employed during the outbreak of disease although pyrethroids are used in both bed net campaigns and in widely available aerosol cans for personal use. However, limited pathogen or insecticide resistance surveillance data are available for making operational decisions. In this study, we assessed Aedes aegypti from serial surveillance collections from 3 locations for the presence of dengue virus serotypes 1-3 (DENV1-3) by polymerase chain reaction and assessed, by melt curve analysis, samples from 10 locations in 2 departments for the presence of two mutations (V1016I and F1534C), that in combination, are linked to strong pyrethroid insecticide resistance. Only one of the 32 tested pools was positive for the presence of dengue virus. The two knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations were present in all locations. The 1016I mutation frequency varied from 0.29 to 0.91 and was in all sites lower than the 0.58-1.00 frequency of the 1534C mutation. We also observed that the genotype homozygous for both mutations (IICC), which has been linked to strong pyrethroid resistance, varied from 13 to 86% in each population. Notably, 3 locations - Ti Cousin and Christianville in Ouest department and Camp Coq in Nord department had more than 30% of the tested population without the presence of kdr mutations. These results indicate that the kdr markers of pyrethroid resistance are present in Haiti, at high frequency in several locations and, based on previous studies linking kdr genotypes and phenotypic resistance, that operational interventions with pyrethroids are not likely to be as effective as expected.

Adaptation to climate change: state of art technologies

PurposeThe world is increasingly threatened by climate change. As the dimensions of this danger grow, it becomes essential to develop the most effective policies to mitigate its impacts and adapt to these new conditions. Technology is one of the most crucial components of this process, and this study focuses on examining climate change adaptation technologies. The aim of the study is to investigate the entire spectrum of technology actors and to concentrate on the technology citation network established from the past to the present, aiming to identify the core actors within this structure and provide a more comprehensive outlook.Design/methodology/approachThe study explores patent citation relationships using social network analysis. It utilizes patent data published between 2000 and 2023 and registered by the US Patent and Trademark Office.FindingsStudy findings reveal that technologies related to greenhouse technologies in agriculture, technologies for combatting vector-borne diseases in the health sector, rainwater harvesting technologies for water management, and urban green infrastructure technologies for infrastructure systems emerge as the most suitable technologies for adaptation. For instance, greenhouse technologies hold significant potential for sustainable agricultural production and coping with the adverse effects of climate change. Additionally, ICTs establish intensive connections with nearly all other technologies, thus supporting our efforts in climate change adaptation. These technologies facilitate data collection, analysis, and management, contributing to a better understanding of the impacts of climate change.Originality/valueExisting patent analysis methods often fall short in detailing the unique contributions of each technology within a technological network. This study addresses this deficiency by comprehensively examining and evaluating each technology within the network, thereby enabling us to better understand how these technologies interact with each other and contribute to the overall technological landscape.

Investigation of Visceral Leishmaniasis and Coinfection of Intestinal Parasites in HIV-Positive Patients

Objective: Parasitic infections are more frequently observed in immunosuppressed cases, such as those infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Furthermore, compared to immunocompetent cases, a more severe clinical course is observed in the immunosuppressed patient group. HIV-positive individuals have increased pathogenicity of parasites and may exhibit a wide range of clinical symptoms of varying severity that may result in mortality. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a vector-borne disease and an important opportunistic infection seen in HIV/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) cases, most notably in Southern Europe and Africa, where both infections are endemic. Several parasites namely toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, isosporiasis, cyclosporiasis, amebiasis, giardiasis, plasmodium, and strongyloidiasis are infections posing significant risk factors for these patient groups. Materials and Methods: In this study, visceral leishmaniasis was investigated serologically in serum samples and parasitic infections were analyzed by conventional methods in fecal samples from HIV-positive cases. Results: 5 of the 42 cases included in the study were female. The mean age of these cases was 38.7 years (19-66). Blastocystis spp was detected in 5 fecal samples obtained from HIV-positive cases. The rK39 dipstick test with serum samples yielded a very weak band in one case, while none of the other tests yielded a positive band. Conclusion: The regional prevalence of these latent infections, which can be subclinical in HIV-positive patients, is important to know. However, the literature lacks sufficient data on the situation in Turkey. In this study, the prevalence of enteric parasitic infections in people with HIV infection in our region was found to be low and VL was not detected.

Evolution of <I>Yersinia pestis</I> as the Causative Agent of a Vector-Borne Disease Transmitted by Arthropods

The review summarizes the data of modern domestic and foreign studies on the mechanisms of evolutionary adaptation of the plague pathogen to transmissive spread by arthropods. The data on the molecular basis of the rapid formation of a highly pathogenic bacterium due to the acquisition of new genetic information; structural and functional changes in the genome, causing the disruption of functionality of some genes that prevent survival in the vector are presented. The stage of the complex life cycle of the pathogen associated with the peculiarities of its stay in the vector’s organism and its tactics of evasion from the action of antibacterial substances formed by the flea is considered. The importance of biofilm formation for effective transmission of the pathogen is discussed. A complex cascade of transcriptional regulators of biofilm in Yersinia pestis is considered, which includes activators and repressors of biofilm formation, as well as regulators of synthesis or modification/transport of exopolysaccharide. The hms-dependent mechanism of biofilm formation in Y. pestis is described in detail, as well as the impact on biofilm formation through the regulation of LPS-related genes and its role in the modification and transport of biofilm exopolysaccharide. The data from our own studies on the variability of genes involved in biofilm formation in the main subspecies of the plague pathogen in comparison with non-main subspecies of the plague pathogen, as well as on the ability of strains of different subspecies to form biofilm not only in the proventriculus of the flea, but also on the cuticle of soil nematodes of the Tylenchida and Rhabditida orders and the genus Panagrolaimus are presented. The latter allows us to assume the possible participation of soil and entomoparasitic nematodes in the removal of Y. pestis biofilms from the soil to the above-ground biocoenosis of the natural plague focus.

The mechanism of cytoplasmic incompatibility is conserved in Wolbachia-infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes deployed for arbovirus control.

The rising interest and success in deploying inherited microorganisms and cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) for vector control strategies necessitate an explanation of the CI mechanism. Wolbachia-induced CI manifests in the form of embryonic lethality when sperm from Wolbachia-bearing testes fertilize eggs from uninfected females. Embryos from infected females however survive to sustain the maternally inherited symbiont. Previously in Drosophila melanogaster flies, we demonstrated that CI modifies chromatin integrity in developing sperm to bestow the embryonic lethality. Here, we validate these findings using wMel-transinfected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes released to control vector-borne diseases. Once again, the prophage WO CI proteins, CifA and CifB, target male gametic nuclei to modify chromatin integrity via an aberrant histone-to-protamine transition. Cifs are not detected in the embryo, and thus elicit CI via the nucleoprotein modifications established pre-fertilization. The rescue protein CifA in oogenesis localizes to stem cell, nurse cell, and oocyte nuclei, as well as embryonic DNA during embryogenesis. Discovery of the nuclear targeting Cifs and altered histone-to-protamine transition in both Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and D. melanogaster flies affirm the Host Modification Model of CI is conserved across these host species. The study also newly uncovers the cell biology of Cif proteins in the ovaries, CifA localization in the embryos, and an impaired histone-to-protamine transition during spermiogenesis of any mosquito species. Overall, these sperm modification findings may enable future optimization of CI efficacy in vectors or pests that are refractory to Wolbachia transinfections.

Assessing Environmental Risks during the Drug Development Process for Parasitic Vector-Borne Diseases: A Critical Reflection.

Parasitic vector-borne diseases (VBDs) represent nearly 20% of the global burden of infectious diseases. Moreover, the spread of VBDs is enhanced by global travel, urbanization, and climate change. Treatment of VBDs faces challenges due to limitations of existing drugs, as the potential for side effects in nontarget species raises significant environmental concerns. Consequently, considering environmental risks early in drug development processes is critically important. Here, we examine the environmental risk assessment process for veterinary medicinal products in the European Union and identify major gaps in the ecotoxicity data of these drugs. By highlighting the scarcity of ecotoxicological data for commonly used antiparasitic drugs, we stress the urgent need for considering the One Health concept. We advocate for employing predictive tools and nonanimal methodologies such as New Approach Methodologies at early stages of antiparasitic drug research and development. Furthermore, adopting progressive approaches to mitigate ecological risks requires the integration of nonstandard tests that account for real-world complexities and use environmentally relevant exposure scenarios. Such a strategy is vital for a sustainable drug development process as it adheres to the principles of One Health, ultimately contributing to a healthier and more sustainable world.

Central nervous system infections in the tropics.

Emerging and re-emerging central nervous system (CNS) infections are a major public health concern in the tropics. The reasons for this are myriad; climate change, rainfall, deforestation, increased vector density combined with poverty, poor sanitation and hygiene. This review focuses on pathogens, which have emerged and re-emerged, with the potential for significant morbidity and mortality. In recent years, multiple acute encephalitis outbreaks have been caused by Nipah virus, which carries a high case fatality. Arboviral infections, predominantly dengue, chikungunya and Zika are re-emerging increasingly especially in urban areas due to changing human habitats, vector behaviour and viral evolution. Scrub typhus, another vector borne disease caused by the bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi , is being established as a leading cause of CNS infections in the tropics. A syndromic and epidemiological approach to CNS infections in the tropics is essential to plan appropriate diagnostic tests and management. Rapid diagnostic tests facilitate early diagnosis and thus help prompt initiation and focusing of therapy to prevent adverse outcomes. Vector control, cautious urbanization and deforestation, and reducing disturbance of ecosystems can help prevent spread of vector-borne diseases. Regional diagnostic and treatment approaches and specific vaccines are required to avert morbidity and mortality.

An ideal model of plant-vector-phytopathogen interaction and the management of the vector

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a vital cereal crop worldwide, crucial for global food security and various industrial applications. Its cultivation faces significant challenges from a diverse array of insect pests and pathogens, notably including the maize leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis) and the maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV). This paper explores the intricate interactions among maize, its insect vectors, and MDMV, emphasizing the urgent need for a deeper understanding to develop sustainable management strategies. Maize exhibits vast genetic diversity and is cultivated across diverse environments, making it susceptible to a range of pests and diseases. The transmission of MDMV by aphids, particularly R. maidis, poses a significant threat to maize production globally. The complex tripartite interaction between maize, aphids, and MDMV serves as an ideal model system for studying plant-insect-phytopathogen interactions. Understanding the components of this interaction is critical for developing effective management strategies. Despite significant research efforts, there remains a knowledge gap in the molecular mechanisms underlying vector-borne diseases. Further research on the molecular level is essential for identifying specific targets for genetic pest control and disrupting pathogen transmission by insect vectors. Developing countries, in particular, require intensified research efforts to address the growing challenges to food security and agricultural sustainability. Thus, unraveling the complexities of plant-insect-phytopathogen interactions is essential for devising effective strategies to combat vector-borne diseases and sustain global food systems. Enhanced scientific research, especially in developing regions, is crucial for addressing these challenges and ensuring food security for future generations.

Impact of ecological migration village construction on vector mosquito and mosquito-borne disease in the southern Yunnan Province, China

AbstractTo evaluate the influence of ecological migration village construction on mosquito vector populations and mosquito-borne diseases in southern Yunnan Province. Two vicinal villages in Mengla County, the southern part of Yunnan Province, a native village, and a newly built village, were selected as study sites. Malaria and Japanese Encephalitis vector mosquito population divergence between the two villages were studied. Malaria and Japanese Encephalitis (JE) cases in the two villages were also compared. Anopheles minimus was the dominant population in houses in the newly built village, and An. jeyporiensis dominated the native village. Accordingly, there were nine malaria cases in the new village compared with zero cases in the native village. Culex tritaeniorhynchus, the chief JE vector in the study area, displayed no difference between the two villages; however, there was a higher density of the local secondary JE vector (Cx. pseudovishnui) in the native village than in the new one. The JE cases in the villages corresponded to zero. From the vector-borne disease perspective, our results suggest that local community should pay more attention to malaria and An. minimus during the construction of an ecological migration village in the new Chinese Western Developing Plan (CWDP) in southern Yunnan Province.

Nanoemulsions containing amphotericin b and paromomycin for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a vector-borne disease characterized by skin lesions that can evolve into high-magnitude ulcerated lesions. Thus, this study aimed to develop an innovative nanoemulsion (NE) with clove oil, Poloxamer® 407, and multiple drugs, such as amphotericin B (AmB) and paromomycin (PM), for use in the topical treatment of CL. Methods: Droplet size, morphology, drug content, stability, in vitro release profile, in vitro cytotoxicity on RAW 264.7 macrophages, and antileishmanial activity using axenic amastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis were assessed for NEs. Results: After optimizing the formulation parameters, such as the concentration of clove oil and drugs, using an experimental design, it was possible to obtain a NE with an average droplet size of 40 nm and a polydispersion index of 0.3, and these parameters were maintained throughout the 365 days. Furthermore, the NE showed stability of AmB and PM content for 180 days under refrigeration (4 °C), presented a pH compatible with the skin, and released modified AmB and PM. NE showed the same toxicity as free AmB and higher toxicity than free PM against RAW 264.7 macrophages. The same activity as free AmB, and higher activity than free PM against amastigotes L. amazonensis. Conclusion: It is possible to develop a NE for the treatment of CL; however, complementary studies regarding the antileishmanial activity of NE should be carried out.

Malaria: biochemical, physiological, diagnostic, and therapeutic updates.

Malaria has been appraised as a significant vector-borne parasitic disease with grave morbidity and high-rate mortality. Several challenges have been confronting the efficient diagnosis and treatment of malaria. Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and the Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB) were all used to gather articles. Diverse biochemical and physiological indices can mirror complicated malaria e.g., hypoglycemia, dyslipidemia, elevated renal and hepatic functions in addition to the lower antioxidant capacity that does not only destroy the parasite but also induces endothelial damage. Multiple trials have been conducted to improve recent points of care in malaria involving biosensors, lap on-chip, and microdevices technology. Regarding recent therapeutic trials, chemical falcipain inhibitors and plant extracts with anti-plasmodial activities are presented. Moreover, antimalaria nano-medicine and the emergence of nanocarrier (either active or passive) in drug transportation are promising. The combination therapeutic trials e.g., amodiaquine + artemether + lumefantrine are presented to safely counterbalance the emerging drug resistance in addition to the Tafenoquine as a new anti-relapse therapy. Recognizing the pathophysiology indices potentiate diagnosis of malaria. The new points of care can smartly manipulate the biochemical and hematological alterations for a more sensitive and specific diagnosis of malaria. Nano-medicine appeared promising. Chemical and plant extracts remain points of research.

CURRENT STATUS OF METATRANSCRIPTOMIC AND RELATED STUDIES IN HEMATOPHAGOUS DISEASE-TRANSMITTING VECTORS

The incidence of numerous vector-borne diseases (VBDs) has recently increased alarmingly due to various widespread factors, including unplanned urbanization, greater human mobility, environmental changes, vector resistance to insecticides, and evolving pathogens. In this context, the World Health Organization (WHO) has repositioned effective and sustainable vector control as a key approach to prevent and eliminate VBDs. It has been shown that the microbiome influences development, nutrition, and pathogen defense in disease-transmitting vectors such as mosquitoes, sandflies, tsetse flies, triatomine bugs, and ticks. Consequently, understanding the endogenous regulation of vector biology can aid in developing effective approaches for vector control. In this respect, a metatranscriptomic approach analyzes all the expressed RNAs in an environmental sample (meta-RNAs) and can thus reveal how the metabolic activities of the microbiome influence vector biology. This review includes an extensive analysis of available literature on microbial and viral studies for some of the major hematophagous disease-transmitting arthropods, with a focus on studies that used next generation sequencing (NGS) approaches. Since a consensus terminology for these “meta-sequencing analyses” has not yet been established, a definition of these terms is presented here to provide the framework for systematically sorting the available information for each of the VBDs analyzed here to single out metatranscriptomic analyses. Finally, key gaps in knowledge were identified for some of these hematophagous disease-transmitting arthropods which will prove very useful for driving future studies.

Knowledge and practices related to louse- and flea-borne diseases among staff providing services to people experiencing homelessness in the United States.

Louse-borne Bartonella quintana infection and flea-borne murine typhus are two potentially serious vector-borne diseases that have led to periodic outbreaks among people experiencing homelessness in the United States. Little is known about louse- and flea-borne disease awareness and prevention among staff who provide services to the population. We surveyed staff in seven US states to identify gaps in knowledge and prevention practices for these diseases. Surveys were administered to 333 staff at 89 homeless shelters and outreach teams in California, Colorado, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, New York and Washington from August 2022 to April 2023. Most participants (>68%) agreed that body lice and fleas are a problem for people experiencing homelessness. About half were aware that diseases could be transmitted by these vectors; however, most could not accurately identify which diseases. Less than a quarter of staff could describe an appropriate protocol for managing body lice or fleas. Misconceptions included that clients must isolate or be denied services until they are medically cleared. Our findings reveal significant knowledge gaps among staff who provide services to people experiencing homelessness in the prevention and control of louse- and flea-borne diseases. This demonstrates an urgent need for staff training to both reduce disease and prevent unnecessary restrictions on services and housing.