Higher Plants Research Articles

Expression of the alfalfa gene MsMDHAR in Arabidopsis thaliana increases water stress tolerance.

The ascorbate-glutathione pathway plays an essential role in the physiology of vascular plants, particularly in their response to environmental stresses. This pathway is responsible for regulating the cellular redox state, which is critical for maintaining cell function and survival under adverse conditions. To study the involvement of the alfalfa monodehydroascorbate reductase (MsMDHAR) in water stress processes, Arabidopsis thaliana plants constitutively expressing the sequence encoding MsMDHAR were developed. Transgenic events with low and high MsMDHAR expression and ascorbate levels were selected for further analysis of drought and waterlogging tolerance. Under water stress, Arabidopsis transgenic plants generated higher biomass, produced more seeds, and had larger roots than wild type ones. This higher tolerance was associated with increased production of waxes and chlorophyll a at the basal level, greater stomatal opening and stability in regulating the relative water content and reduced H2O2 accumulation under stress conditions in transgenic plants. Overall, these results show that MsMDHAR is involved in plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. The data presented here also emphasises the potential of the MsMDHAR enzyme as a plant breeding tool to improve water stress tolerance.

Arabidopsis COP1 suppresses root hair development by targeting type I ACS proteins for ubiquitination and degradation.

Root hairs (RHs) are an innovation of vascular plants whose development is coordinated by endogenous and environmental cues, such as ethylene and light conditions. However, the potential crosstalk between ethylene and light conditions in RH development is unclear. We report that Arabidopsis constitutive photomorphogenic 1 (COP1) integrates ethylene and light signaling to mediate RH development. Darkness suppresses RH development largely through COP1. COP1 inhibits both cell fate determination of trichoblast and tip growth of RHs based on pharmacological, genetic, and physiological analyses. Indeed, COP1 interacts with and catalyzes the ubiquitination of ACS2 and ACS6. COP1- or darkness-promoted proteasome-dependent degradation of ACS2/6 leads to a low ethylene level in underground tissues. The negative role of COP1 in RH development by downregulating ethylene signaling may be coordinated with the positive role of COP1 in hypocotyl elongation by upregulating ethylene signaling, providing an evolutionary advantage for seedling fitness.

Two decades of increasing functional and phylogenetic richness in a mountaintop flora in central Norway

AbstractQuestionsAnalysing how multiple facets of biodiversity vary across space and time can help to predict the vulnerability of mountaintop floras to future environmental changes. Here we addressed the following questions: (a) Are elevational patterns of mountaintop plant diversity consistent across taxonomy, function and phylogeny? (b) How have the taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic dimensions of mountaintop plant communities changed over the past two decades? (c) Is the magnitude of these temporal trends dependent on elevation?LocationDovrefjell, central Norway.MethodsThe floristic composition of four mountaintops, spread across an elevational gradient from the tree line to the uppermost margins of vascular plant life, was surveyed every 7 years between 2001 and 2022. Six metrics of taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic richness and differentiation were calculated for each mountaintop and survey. Using these data, we assessed how richness and differentiation metrics varied over space (across the elevational gradient) and over time (between surveys).ResultsAll diversity metrics decreased towards higher elevations, except phylogenetic differentiation which increased significantly by 7% per 100 m elevational gain. Taxonomic richness remained virtually stable between 2001 and 2022, whereas phylogenetic richness increased by 7.5% per decade. Functional richness also increased, but mainly on the lowest mountaintop, by 17% per decade. No significant temporal trends in taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic differentiation were detected.ConclusionsOur findings underpin rearrangements in the functional and phylogenetic structure of mountain plant communities over the past two decades that cannot be predicted from trends in taxonomic richness alone. This highlights the necessity to look beyond species richness and consider multiple facets of biodiversity when studying environmental change impacts on mountain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE CONCENTRATION AND RATIOS OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS IN THE THREE SPHAGNUM SPECIES

Background. There is reason suppose that the concentration of photosynthetic pigments in sphagnum mosses, as in vascular plants, changes throughout the year and varies from species to species. Moreover, hollow sphagnum species have a higher growth and photosynthesis rate than ridge sphagnum species, which suggests the presence of differences in the pigment complex of species from different habitats. Purpose. Evaluation of quantitative changes in the pigment complex of the sphagnum mosses growing in different microclimatic conditions within oligotrophic bogs during the growing season at high latitudes. Materials and methods. The content of photosynthetic pigments in the three Sphagnum species growing in oligotrophic conditions was determined using the photometric method in an acetone extract once a month from May to October. The study was carried out for S. fuscum and S. lindbergii in 2021-2022, and for S. angustifolium only in 2022. Statistical data processing was carried out in Microsoft Excel 2010 and SPSS Statistics 11. Results. Seasonal and interannual variability in the content of chlorophylls, carotenoids, and their ratios was revealed for the studied sphagnum species. The pigment complex of S. lindbergii and S. angustifolium during the growing season is influenced by the bog water level and air temperature. Changes in the pigment complex of S. fuscum are associated with the amount of precipitation. Conclusion. Apparently, the seasonal and interannual dynamics of the pigment complex of sphagnum mosses is species-specific, but to further verify this statement it is necessary to study other species of sphagnum mosses from the same habitats, since the dynamics may be associated not so much with a peculiar species, but with the ecological conditions of the habitat.

CLEM, a universal tool for analyzing structural organization in thylakoid membranes

AbstractChlorophyll (Chl) plays a crucial role in photosynthesis, functioning as a photosensitizer. As an integral component of this process, energy absorbed by this pigment is partly emitted as red fluorescence. This signal can be readily imaged by fluorescence microscopy and provides a visualization of photosynthetic activity. However, due to limited resolution, signals cannot be assigned to specific subcellular/organellar membrane structures. By correlating fluorescence micrographs with transmission electron microscopy, researchers can identify sub‐cellular compartments and membranes, enabling the monitoring of Chl distribution within thylakoid membrane substructures in cyanobacteria, algae, and higher plant single cells. Here, we describe a simple and effective protocol for correlative light‐electron microscopy (CLEM) based on the autofluorescence of Chl and demonstrate its application to selected photosynthetic model organisms. Our findings illustrate the potential of this technique to identify areas of high Chl concentration and photochemical activity, such as grana regions in vascular plants, by mapping stacked thylakoids.

New records of protected, threatened, and rare vascular plant species in the Lower Bug Valley (eastern Poland)

New records of protected, threatened, and rare vascular plant species in the Lower Bug Valley (eastern Poland)

Floristic Inventory, Diversity, and Community Structure of the Riparian and Coastal Sand Dune Landscapes in the Lower Padsan River Basin, Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Padsan River basin, the largest river system in Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, encompasses two vital ecological landscapes: coastal sand dunes and riparian areas. Despite its ecological importance, the floristic diversity of these landscapes still needs to be better understood and documented. A vegetation assessment was conducted to characterize the composition, diversity, and community structure of plants in the lower Padsan River landscapes. Eighteen 10 m x 10 m nested quadrats were established across six sampling stations. The study recorded 82 species of vascular plants from 80 genera and 41 families. Fifty-two percent are introduced species, 48% are native species, and 27% are invasive species. The plant life forms are composed of trees (34 spp.), herbs (17 spp.), vines (13 spp.) and grasses (9 spp.). Fabaceae and poaceae were the most species-rich plant families. Prosopis juliflora (Candaroma) was the most dominant tree species, comprising 29% of the entire population. The lower Padsan River basin landscapes exhibits moderate tree diversity (H’ = 2.7), with Shannon diversity indices ranging from 0.89 to 2.43 across sampling locations. The riparian areas showed higher tree Shannon diversity, richness, and evenness, while the coastal sand dune areas had higher tree dominance but lower Shannon diversity. The plant community structure varies between the two types of ecological landscapes (ANOSIM Global R=0.7, p<0.05). P. juliflora dominates the coastal sand dune, while a mix of the Leucaena-Pithecellobium-Terminalia community characterizes the riparian area. This study provides essential baseline information on the floristic diversity and community structure, serving as a foundation for developing an integrated river management plan and strategies for conserving important ecological landscapes in the downstream section of the Padsan River Basin.

Vascular plants of Namhae-gun area (Namhae Bridge and Sangju· Geumsan district) in Hallyeohaesang National Park

Vascular plants of Namhae-gun area (Namhae Bridge and Sangju· Geumsan district) in Hallyeohaesang National Park

Populus euphratica CPK21 Interacts with NF-YC3 to Enhance Cadmium Tolerance in Arabidopsis.

The toxic metal cadmium (Cd) poses a serious threat to plant growth and human health. Populus euphratica calcium-dependent protein kinase 21 (CPK21) has previously been shown to attenuate Cd toxicity by reducing Cd accumulation, enhancing antioxidant defense and improving water balance in transgenic Arabidopsis. Here, we confirmed a protein-protein interaction between PeCPK21 and Arabidopsis nuclear transcription factor YC3 (AtNF-YC3) by yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays. AtNF-YC3 was induced by Cd and strongly expressed in PeCPK21-overexpressed plants. Overexpression of AtNF-YC3 in Arabidopsis reduced the Cd inhibition of root length, fresh weight and membrane stability under Cd stress conditions (100 µM, 7 d), suggesting that AtNF-YC3 appears to contribute to the improvement of Cd stress tolerance. AtNF-YC3 improved Cd tolerance by limiting Cd uptake and accumulation, activating antioxidant enzymes and reducing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production under Cd stress. We conclude that PeCPK21 interacts with AtNF-YC3 to limit Cd accumulation and enhance the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging system and thereby positively regulate plant adaptation to Cd environments. This study highlights the interaction between PeCPK21 and AtNF-YC3 under Cd stress conditions, which can be utilized to improve Cd tolerance in higher plants.

When Size Matters: New Insights on How Seed Size Can Contribute to the Early Stages of Plant Development.

The seed habit is the most complex and successful method of sexual reproduction in vascular plants. It represents a remarkable moment in the evolution of plants that afterward spread on land. In particular, seed size had a pivotal role in evolutionary success and agronomic traits, especially in the field of crop domestication. Given that crop seeds constitute one of the primary products for consumption, it follows that seed size represents a fundamental determinant of crop yield. This adaptative feature is strictly controlled by genetic traits from both maternal and zygotic tissues, although seed development and growth are also affected by environmental cues. Despite being a highly exploited topic for both basic and applied research, there are still many issues to be elucidated for developmental biology as well as for agronomic science. This review addresses a number of open questions related to cues that influence seed growth and size and how they influence seed germination. Moreover, new insights on the genetic-molecular control of this adaptive trait are presented.

BdRCN4, a Brachypodium distachyon TFL1 homologue, is involved in regulation of apical meristem fate.

In higher plants, the shift from vegetative to reproductive development is governed by complex interplay of internal and external signals. TERMINALFLOWER1 (TFL1) plays a crucial role in the regulation of flowering time and inflorescence architecture in Arabidopsis thaliana. This study aimed to explore the function of BdRCN4, a homolog of TFL1 in Brachypodium distachyon, through functional analyses in mutant and transgenic plants. The results revealed that overexpression of BdRCN4 in B. distachyon leads to an extended vegetative phase and reduced production of spikelets. Similar results were found in A. thaliana, where constitutive expression of BdRCN4 promoted a delay in flowering time, followed by the development of hypervegetative shoots, with no flowers or siliques produced. Our results suggest that BdRCN4 acts as a flowering repressor analogous to TFL1, negatively regulating AP1, but no LFY expression. To further validate this hypothesis, a 35S::LFY-GR co-transformation approach on 35::BdRCN4 lines was performed. Remarkably, AP1 expression levels and flower formation were restored to normal in co-transformed plants when treated with dexamethasone. Although further molecular studies will be necessary, the evidence in B. distachyon support the idea that a balance between LFY and BdRCN4/TFL1 seems to be essential for activating AP1 expression and initiating floral organ identity gene expression. This study also demonstrates interesting conservation through the molecular pathways that regulate flowering meristem transition and identity across the evolution of monocot and dicot plants.

Reindeer grazing reduces climate‐driven vegetation changes and shifts trophic interactions in the Fennoscandian tundra

Herbivores drive shifts in plant species composition by interacting with vegetation through defoliation, trampling and nutrient addition: urine and faeces. As herbivore effects on vegetation accumulate over time, they might spillover to other trophic levels, but how and when this happens is poorly understood. Since it is methodologically demanding to measure biodiversity across spatial gradients, an alternative approach is to assess it through biodiversity indices of vascular plants. We employed the Index of biodiversity relevance developed for Swedish flora which provides an estimated number of organisms associated with a plant species, allowing the quantification of trophic community size. Values from this index were coupled with vegetation data from a network of 96 fenced and paired grazed plots across Fennoscandia. We analysed the role herbivory has on plant richness and diversity, and on the number of organisms that interact with the vegetation according to the index values. We also explored how herbivores influence the competitive effects of tall shrubs on other plants since the dominance of a vegetation type links directly to biodiversity. Plant diversity had no clear response to grazing. Overall vegetation and the vegetation subgroups herbs and non‐fruit shrubs had higher biodiversity index values in fenced plots, indicating a higher number of plant–host interactions. Herb cover was negatively related to shrubs in both treatments but with a faster decline in the absence of herbivores. This study highlights the importance of maintaining herbivore populations in the Arctic to conserve the vegetation structure and biodiversity of the tundra. This method of coupling biodiversity indexes with vegetation data provides complementary information to the plant diversity, especially when methodological or time constraints prevent complete field inventories.

England's statutory biodiversity metric enhances plant, but not bird nor butterfly, biodiversity

Abstract Biodiversity net gain is a policy focus worldwide, acknowledging ongoing losses of biodiversity to development, and a commitment to offsetting any residual impacts on biodiversity elsewhere. At least 37 countries have mandatory offsetting policies, and a further 64 countries enable voluntary offsets. Offsets rely on credible and evidence‐based methods to quantify biodiversity losses and gains. Following the introduction of the United Kingdom's Environment Act in November 2021, all new developments requiring planning permission in England must demonstrate a biodiversity net gain of at least 10% biodiversity net gain from 2024, calculated using a statutory biodiversity metric framework. The metric uses habitat as a proxy for biodiversity, scoring habitats' intrinsic distinctiveness and current condition. We carried out a study of the metric's performance across England in terms of outcomes for biodiversity. We used generalized linear mixed models to regress baseline biodiversity units against five long‐established single‐attribute proxies for biodiversity (species richness, individual abundance, number of threatened species, mean species range and mean species range/population change). Data were gathered for species belonging to three commonly used indicator taxa (vascular plants, butterflies and birds) from 24 sites, including all terrestrial broad habitats except urban. In baseline assessments, metric‐derived biodiversity units correlated with most plant biodiversity variables, but not with any of the bird or butterfly biodiversity variables used in this study. Plant species recorded in habitats with higher baseline biodiversity units had slightly more restricted ranges (slope −16.22 ± 1.52, p < 0.001) on average and had shown stronger past declines (slope −0.02 ± 0.00, p < 0.001) than those in habitats with lower baseline biodiversity units. Each additional baseline biodiversity unit was associated with a 1% increase in plant species richness (p < 0.01). Synthesis and applications: Using the statutory biodiversity metric to define 10% biodiversity net gain without additional species‐focused conservation management is likely to translate into small gains for plant biodiversity, and negligible gains for birds and butterflies. We make specific recommendations to improve the metric's efficacy in achieving desirable biodiversity outcomes. Our results provide a valuable case study for other countries interested in developing metrics to support biodiversity net gain policies.

Comparative account and diversity of lower and higher plants in two lakes of Haliyal Taluk, Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka

Comparative account and diversity of lower and higher plants in two lakes of Haliyal Taluk, Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka

Genomic Identification of Callose Synthase (CalS) Gene Family in Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and Comparative In Silico Expression Analysis under Aphid (Melanaphis sacchari) Infestation

Callose is widely present in higher plants and plays a significant role in plant growth, development, and response to various stresses. Although numerous studies have highlighted the importance of the callose synthase (CalS) genes, their role in the resistance of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) to aphids (Melanaphis sacchari) remains limitedly understood. This study identified 11 sorghum callose synthase genes (SbCalS), unevenly distributed across four chromosomes of sorghum. All SbCalS proteins contain glucan synthase and Fks1 domains, with segmental duplication playing a major role in gene diversification. Cis-element prediction revealed the presence of numerous stress-responsive elements, indicating that this gene family is primarily involved in stress resistance. Using published RNA-seq data, we discovered the differential expression of the SbCalS5 gene between resistant and susceptible sorghum varieties. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis confirmed the relative expression levels of all SbCalS members under aphid stress. To further verify the role of callose in sorghum, we measured the callose content in both resistant and susceptible sorghum varieties. The results indicated that callose plays a critical role in aphid resistance in sorghum, particularly the SbCalS5 gene. This study provides a reference for further investigation into the role of callose synthase genes in sorghum aphid resistance.

Diurnal-Rhythmic Relationships between Physiological Parameters and Photosynthesis- and Antioxidant-Enzyme Genes Expression in the Raphidophyte Chattonella marina Complex.

Diurnal rhythms in physiological functions contribute to homeostasis in many organisms. Although relationships between molecular biology and diurnal rhythms have been well studied in model organisms like higher plants, those in harmful algal bloom species are poorly understood. Here we measured several physiological parameters and the expression patterns of photosynthesis-related and antioxidant-enzyme genes in the Chattonella marina complex to understand the biological meaning of diurnal rhythm. Under a light-dark cycle, Fv/Fm and expression of psbA, psbD, and 2-Cys prx showed significant increases in the light and decreases during the dark. These rhythms remained even under continuous dark conditions. DCMU suppressed the induction of psbA, psbD, and 2-Cys prx expression under both light regimes. Oxidative stress levels and H2O2 scavenging activities were relatively stable, and there was no significant correlation between H2O2 scavenging activities and antioxidant-enzyme gene expression. These results indicate that the Chattonella marina complex has developed mechanisms for efficient photosynthetic energy production in the light. Our results showed that this species has a diurnal rhythm and a biological clock. These phenomena are thought to contribute to the efficiency of physiological activities centered on photosynthesis and cell growth related to the diurnal vertical movement of this species.

Carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in the growing and non-growing season in the Dajiuhu subtropical peatland: A five-year measurement using the eddy covariance technique

Peatlands present substantial terrestrial carbon reservoirs actively engaged in land-atmosphere carbon exchanges. Ongoing variations in carbon dynamics, attributed to global climate change, underscore the necessity of elucidating the connections between carbon fluxes and meteorological parameters. Limited studies have delved into disparities in carbon fluxes and the mechanisms mediating them during growing and non-growing seasons on a long-term scale, particularly in subtropical peatlands. Consequently, this study utilized the eddy covariance technique in the Dajiuhu peatland to investigate five-year CH4 and CO2 fluxes, longside meteorological characteristics. The Dajiuhu peatland functioned as a CO2 sink and CH4 source, ultimately serving as a carbon sink. A substantial portion of the annual fluxes was measured during the non-growing season, with elevated CO2 uptake and CH4 emission during the growing season. Further analyses revealed that photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), soil temperature (Ts), air temperature (Ta), and soil water content (SWC) were critical environmental parameters influencing fluctuations in CO2 and CH4 fluxes. Two distinct controlling pathways for CO2 fluxes were identified. In the growing season, PAR emerged as the most influential factor in CO2 flux variations, and increasing Ts weakened CO2 absorption by decreasing SWC. During the non-growing season, Ts emerged as the most influential factor in CO2 exchanges, with lower Ts leading to decreased CO2 uptake. Additionally, CH4 flux variations were significantly regulated by PAR and Ts in both periods. The results illustrated that vascular plants played a pivotal role in the dynamics of carbon between peatlands and the atmosphere. Furthermore, it was discovered that the Dajiuhu peatland contributed to mitigating global warming in both the short and long term, with SGWP identified as a more reliable evaluation index. Our findings underscore the essential ecological function of the Dajiuhu subtropical peatland and provide a theoretical foundation for scientifically managing carbon in natural subtropical peatlands.

Spit bar deposits from the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) transgressive sequence in NE Bohemia (Czechia)

We propose a spit bar setting as the possible palaeoenvironment of the basal Late Cretaceous transgressive sequence in NW Bohemia. A new Cenomanian transgression model for the Bohemian Basin is also proposed. The uppermost Devět Křížů Sandstone, which has been conventionally referred to the Bohdašín Formation, probably represents the middle or lower upper Cenomanian (Upper Cretaceous), not the Triassic as previously supposed. We assume that this controversial unit was deposited before the main latest Cenomanian–early Turonian transgression. The spit bars were likely overgrown by vascular plants during their emergence in the late Cenomanian, and then inundated during the latest Cenomanian and early Turonian transgressive phases. The studied deposits had been intensively bioturbated, and the cf. Taenidium suite was recognized for the first time in them alongside the Thalassinoides assemblage (T. paradoxicus, T. suevicus, Thalassinoides isp., cf. Thalassinoides), which are characteristic of the Scoyenia and Glossifungites ichnofacies, respectively. The bioturbated, rhizolith-bearing horizon was presumably a paleosol.

Assessment of the Divergent Influence of Natural and Non-Seasonal Hydrological Fluctuations on Functional Traits and Niche Characteristics of Plant Guilds along the Xiangxi River, China

The reservoir water level fluctuation zones (RWLFZs) and the natural riparian zones (NRZs) are two riparian ecosystems with dramatically opposite hydrological rhythms that notably influence the plant guilds. However, little is known about the discrepancies of the functional traits and niche characteristics of plant guilds in the RWLFZs and NRZs under different flooding rhythms. The aims of this study were to assess the divergent influence of natural and non-seasonal hydrological fluctuations on functional traits and niche characteristics of plant guilds. The results showed that 78 vascular plant species were identified in the riparian zones of the Xiangxi River basin. The dominant species were annuals in the two riparian ecosystems and their percentage increased temporally from 65.79% in the NRZs to 67.34% in the RWLFZs. Compared with the NRZs, the specific leaf area, vegetation coverage and the aboveground biomass in the RWLFZs significantly increased by 74%, 27% and 19.6%, respectively, while the water-use efficiency of the RWLFZ decreased by 59.6% and there was no significant difference in the net photosynthetic rate between them, which showed that annuals in the RWLFZs adopted the R adaptation strategy of being fast-growing with a short lifespan and quickly acquiring and investing resources by altering leaf morphology, including expanding the leaf area. The Simpson dominance index of RWLFZs was significantly higher than that of NRZ. Thus, counter-seasonally hydrological alterations had significant effects on functional traits of dominant species in the RWFLZs. Moreover, the highly adaptable and widely distributed species with larger niche breadths and high important values usually had a higher niche overlap value in the RWLFZs than in the NRZs, which showed that the competition in the plant communities after experiencing anti-seasonal flooding was much more intraspecific than interspecific and would facilitate the expansion of species niches. Our findings imply that the species with large niche breadths and high important values should be prioritized in ecological restoration efforts in the newly formed hydro-fluctuation zones of the TGR.

Biodiversity monitoring for the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest in south-west Western Australia: An extension to ten-year findings of Forestcheck

Long-term research and monitoring programs can provide important insights into biodiversity patterns to inform sustainable management of multi-use forest ecosystems. This study investigated biodiversity patterns in two forest ecosystems in the southwest region of Australia, as part of a long-term monitoring program, Forestcheck, established to track changes and trends in forest biodiversity associated with management activities. We assessed the effects of forest ecosystem, silvicultural treatment types (gap release and shelterwood/selective harvesting) and time since fire, on taxonomic richness and assemblage patterns across six taxonomic groups (terrestrial vertebrates, birds, macro-invertebrates, vascular plants, macro-fungi and cryptogams). Further, temporal comparisons in taxonomic richness and assemblage were completed for vascular plants and terrestrial vertebrates using data collected in a second round of monitoring. There was a low-level effect of harvesting and prescribed burning disturbance on combined community assemblage, but forest ecosystem had a greater influence on biodiversity patterns. Plant assemblages changed significantly according to ecosystem, silvicultural treatment type and monitoring round when two rounds of monitoring data were considered. These findings support previous assessments of Forestcheck sites, in that the strongest determinant of biodiversity patterns was forest ecosystem, and the greatest effects of disturbance were on assemblage patterns. These results provide some insight into post disturbance patterns and may assist with decision-making in relation to silviculture and prescribed burning regimes, and post-silviculture management, to provide increased opportunity for restoration of diversity.