Various Groups Of Animals Research Articles

Fluctuating asymmetry as a bio-marker to account for in conservation and management of cave-dwelling species

The applicability of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in conservation biology as a bio-marker and an early warning system have been examined in various groups of animals. However, cave-dwelling invertebrates have gotten little attention and yet caves have no biological management. Thus, developing a bio-marker to identify early responses of cave-dwelling species to stress provides a valuable tool to account for in future conservation and management programs. We examined whether FA can be used as a bio-marker of relaxed selection for cave-dwelling invertebrates. Specifically, we compared FA levels of pedipalps and two segments of chelicerae (chelicel1 and chelicel2) between cave and surface habitats and among populations in a troglophilic harvestman specie, Paranemastoma sillii sillii (Herman, 1871). Under the assumption that cave environment exerts relaxed selection we hypothesised that cave-dwelling harvestmen express higher degree of FA than surface-dwelling harvestmen. Because female and male harvestmen use the pediplaps differently, we assumed sex-specific selective pressures and further examined the effect of sex and habitat (cave vs surface) and sex interaction on FA levels. We hypothesised no differences in the levels of FA among harvestman cave populations, because of the idea that relaxed selection is responsible for higher levels of FA in cave-dwelling harvestmen rather than environmental stress. We found significant habitat sex interactions in the FA of the pedipalp. Interactions of population and sex had a significant effect on pedipalp and chelicel2 FA. These results partially support the idea that FA responds to differences in the strength of selection. Although we cannot fully disentangle the mechanisms of natural selection affecting FA and the study of trait asymmetry should be combined with studies of other sources of stress (i.e. genetic stress, predation, prey availability) we conclude that FA could be a bioindicator to be used as a tool in conservation and management of cave.

Species-specific signatures of the microbiome from Camponotus and Colobopsis ants across developmental stages.

Symbiotic relationships between hosts and bacteria are common in nature, and these may be responsible for the evolutionary success of various groups of animals. Among ants, these associations have been well studied in some genera of the Camponotini, but several questions remain regarding the generality of the previous findings across all the members of this ant tribe and if bacterial communities change across development in these hosts. This study is the first to characterize the bacterial community associated with a colony of the recently recognized genus Colobopsis and three colonies of Camponotus (two distinct species) and show how different the composition of the bacterial community is when compared across the different genera. Our data reveal that Colobopsis (species: Co. riehlii) and Camponotus (species: Ca. floridanus and Ca. planatus) have distinct microbiota, and we were able to verify that the identity of the species contributes more to the bacterial diversity. We also demonstrated that there were no significant differences between colonies of the same species (Camponotus planatus), and between stages of development from different colonies. We did find that some developmental stages have distinct bacteria, confirming that each stage of development could have a specific microbiota. Our results show species are one of the factors that shape the bacterial community in these Camponotini ants. Additional studies of the intra-colonial microbiome of other hosts and across development may reveal additional clues about the function and importance of bacteria in colony recognition, individual and colony health, and nutritional upgrading.

Comparison between Populations of Black Pied and Holstein Cows and Stud Bulls from Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan by the Genetic Markers for Resistance to Leukemia

Leukemia is one of the most common infectious diseases of cattle in Russia and Kazakhstan. The study is devoted to the analysis of genetic resistance to leukemia by PCR-RFLP in 716 cows (including 75 RID+ cows and 27 cows with hematological changes) and 81 Black Pied and Holstein stud bulls from the Bryansk and Leningrad regions (Russia), Kazakhstan and Belarus. To this end, we have examined the allele frequencies of BoLA-DRB3 gene related to the resistance (R) and susceptibility (S) to leukemia in various groups of animals. Cows from the breeding farms have 44.1-55.2% of S alleles, associated with susceptibility to leukemia, in the commercial farms they make up 20.1-29.4%. The total number of susceptibility S alleles in stud bulls ranges from 49.9% to 70.9%. In cows of all groups, the number of resistance alleles R to leukemia is far greater than in the bulls of all groups. It was shown that the number of S allele carriers is greater among RID+ cows. Analysis of 2 groups of sick cows has revealed that they include no animal units with RR genotype and only by 11-12% of cows with genotype R/S and R/N. The findings suggest the accumulation of S alleles to leukemia under holsteinization of the Black Pied breed, with increased risk of developing leukemia in animals.

Bleomycin-induced pulmonary toxicopathological changes in rats and its prevention by walnut extract

Oxidative stress-related inflammation and apoptosis are important pathogenic consequences, which result in acute pulmonary toxicity. Bleomycin (BLM) is used to treat various forms of cancers. However, its prolonged administration is associated with major toxicity to respiratory system. We studied the effect of walnut (Juglans regia) extract in a rat model of BLM-induced pulmonary toxicopathy. We also studied parameters of inflammation, apoptosis and oxidative stress in various groups of animals. Prophylactic treatment of total methanolic extract of walnut at the dose of 150mg/kg b.w. was given per os to Wistar rats for 14days prior to BLM exposure. A single intratracheal injection of BLM (10U/kg b.w.) was administered on the eleventh day of the treatment. There was a marked increase in the hydroxyproline level, lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide production, and in the activities of xanthine oxidase and myeloperoxidase in the lung tissue in BLM-treated animals when compared to control animals. BLM also decreased the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione reductase and catalase and increased the lung inflammation and apoptosis by upregulating the NF-κB signaling pathway and caspase-3 expression. Treatment with walnut extract attenuated these changes in a significant manner. Walnut extract significantly modulated the lung injury as measured by markers of cellular injury such as lactate dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase, total cell count, total protein and reduced glutathione in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Histological findings supported the protective effects of walnut extract against BLM-induced lung injury. Walnut which has been shown to have numerous medicinally valuable constituents including ellagic acid showed efficacy in preventing the various toxicopathological effects of BLM in rat lungs. Overall, walnut extract decreases BLM-induced oxidative stress and lung inflammation by modulating the alveolar macrophage inflammatory response in rats and thus protecting them from the pathological effect of BLM.

The Role of Frontal Cortical and Medial-Temporal Lobe Brain Areas in Learning a Bayesian Prior Belief on Reversals.

The ability to use prior knowledge to adapt choice behavior is critical for flexible decision making. Reversal learning is often studied as a form of flexible decision making. However, prior studies have not identified which brain regions are important for the formation and use of prior beliefs to guide choice behavior. Here we develop a Bayesian approach that formally characterizes learning set as a concept, and we show that, in macaque monkeys, the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex have a role in establishing an initial belief about the stability of the reward environment.

Safranal as a safe compound to mice immune system.

The aim of the present study was to investigate immunotoxic effect of safranal (SAF), a main component of Crocus sativus essential oil, using Balb/c mice. SAF was administered intraperitoneally at doses of 0.1, 0.5 and 1 ml/kg for 3 weeks. Hystopathological examination of spleen and bone marrow, cellularity of spleen, delayed type of hypersensitivity (DTH) response, hemagglutination titer (HA), cytokine production and lymphocyte proliferation assay were studied in various groups of animals. Spleen cellularity for SAF groups (0.1 ml/kg SAF: 6.68 [± 0.88] × 10(7), 0.5 ml/kg SAF: 8.16 [± 1.33] × 10(7), 1 ml/kg SAF: 6.12 [± 0.59] × 10(7)) did not significantly differ as compared to vehicle control (8.52 [± 1.36] × 10(7); p > 0.05). In addition, SAF at all doses could not produce any significant changes in hematological parameters, HA titer, DTH and lymphoproliferation responses, as well as in release of cytokines by isolated splenocytes (p > 0.05). Despite a few studies demonstrating some immunomodulatory effects for saffron extract, SAF as a major constituent of saffron did not induce any marked effects in immune system parameters of mice. Contrary to the toxicological studies which have indicated that SAF is more toxic than other active constituents in saffron stigma, at least it was found to be safe to mice immune system and has no toxicity on humoral and cellular immune responses.

Epiphytic leafy liverworts diversified in angiosperm-dominated forests.

Recent studies have provided evidence for pulses in the diversification of angiosperms, ferns, gymnosperms, and mosses as well as various groups of animals during the Cretaceous revolution of terrestrial ecosystems. However, evidence for such pulses has not been reported so far for liverworts. Here we provide new insight into liverwort evolution by integrating a comprehensive molecular dataset with a set of 20 fossil age constraints. We found evidence for a relative constant diversification rate of generalistic liverworts (Jungermanniales) since the Palaeozoic, whereas epiphytic liverworts (Porellales) show a sudden increase of lineage accumulation in the Cretaceous. This difference is likely caused by the pronounced response of Porellales to the ecological opportunities provided by humid, megathermal forests, which were increasingly available as a result of the rise of the angiosperms.

Ecomorphic organisation of the Ukraine steppe zone spider community

The conception of ecomorphes as ecological groups of living organisms has been developed by A. L. Belgard (1950) applicable for species of the highest plants of the southeast of a steppe zone of Ukraine. Conceptually close system of vital forms-biomorphs of animals and plants has been created by Mikhail Pavlovich Akimov (Akimov, 1955). A key task of an ecomorphic approach is the ecological analysis of ecosystems structure. The ecomorphic approach has been applied to various groups of animals: entomological fauna of wood plants (Apostolov, 1981), complexes of land arthropods (Barsov, 1996), communities of birds (Ponomarenko, 2002), soil mesofauna (Zhukov, 1996), coleoptera communities agrocoenosis (Sumarokov, 2007). To identify animal species as ecomorphes the expert approach was used: the expert in taxonomy group relying on the experience and knowledge of object identifies it ecomorphes. The algorithm of ecomorphes allocation of soil animals has been offered by Zhukov (Zhukov, 2009). With some changes this algorithm has been applied to allocation of spider species of the Dnepropetrovsk region (Prokopenko et al., 2011). A lack of the specified algorithm is that it yields satisfactory results only for abundant and frequent species in regional fauna. The shortcoming reason – it relies on parametrical statistics for which compliance of experimental data to the normal law of distribution is essentially important that actually can be established only for limited number of species. As result, for a number rather rare in regional fauna of species of spiders incorrect conclusions have been drawn on their ecological status which is known on data from spiders of regions more studied from the point of view of fauna. In our work nonparametric procedure of a multidimensional scaling which is tolerant to a statistical property of distribution of an abundance of types has been taken for a basis of ecomorphic classification of herpetobiont spiders. It including has allowed to integrate the data collected by various authors in a wide time and spatial span for the general analysis. Faunistic collection also differed and by a technique: the sizes of the traps, fixing liquid, number of traps, an exposition time. It is necessary to consider these circumstances objective as ecological classification of regional fauna should be based on considerable on coverage in time and space a material which cannot be collected on completely uniform procedure. The multidimensional scaling represents adaptive ordination procedure which assumes a choice of the final decision proceeding, first of all, ecological criteria, instead of especially mathematical. Such adaptability is reached by comparison of ordination decisions with markers of an ecological situation which are received at the biogeocoenosis description of places of sampling. These descriptions are presented in terms of typology of biogeocoenosis of Belgard (1950, 1971): their coenotic status, and also assessment of a mode of a fertility and humidity. The key material is received within the Prisamarsky biospheric station of the Dnepropetrovsk national university where within a monitoring profile reference types of wood biogeocenoses of a steppe zone of Ukraine are presented. Primary data of ecological-faunistic researches are represented in the form of matrixes (tables) where columns are presented by a species, and lines – sampling points. Sampling points may be ecologically processed on the basis of biogeocoenosis descriptions. If to find nature of compliance between sampling points and species, it is possible to make interpretation of the ecological status of species, i.e. to reveal key ecological groups (ecomorphes) and to establish belonging of species to them. The multidimensional scaling allows to estimate within one metric space an arrangement as species, and sampling points. Co-ordinates of sampling points in dimention of a multidimensional scaling are used as predictor of ecological characteristics of the environment in these points. Applying the obtained regression models it is possible to estimates of optimum conditions for species if in these models to use as predictor co-ordinates of species in those dimention of a multidimensional scaling. Species which are characterised by similar optimum values of ecological factors form ecological groups, or ecomorphes. Respectively for spiders we allocate coenomorphes, hygromorphes, trophocoenomorphes.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Mangiferin in Experimental Animals with Benzo(a)Pyrene-induced Lung Carcinogenesis

The immunomodulatory activity of mangiferin was studied in various groups of animals. For this study, adult Swiss albino male mice were treated with benzo(a)pyrene, abbreviated as B(a)P, at 50 mg/kg body weight orally twice a week for 4 weeks; and mangiferin was also given orally (pre- and post-initiation of carcinoma) at 100 mg/kg body weight. Immunocompetence and immune complexes as measured by phagocyte index, avidity index, and soluble immune complex (SIC) levels (p<0.001), as well as NBT reduction, were decreased in the B(a)P-treated animals;whereas increased levels of immunocompetence were noted in the mangiferin-treated animals given B(a)P (p<0.001, p<0.05). The levels of immunoglobulins such as IgG and IgM were decreased considerably (p<0.001) in the B(a)P-treated animals compared with their levels in the control animals; whereas the IgA level was increased (p<0.001). In the mangiferin-treated experimental animals given B(a)P, the levels of IgG and IgM were significantly (p<0.001, p<0.05) increased whereas the IgA level was decreased compared with those for the B(a)P-treated mice. Oxidative changes in lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages were also measured. The enhanced lipid peroxidation and decreased catalase and superoxide dismutase activities found in the lymphocytes, polymorphonuclear cells (PMN), and macrophages from B(a)P-treated mice were significantly reduced and increased, respectively, by the mangiferin treatment. This study confirms the immunomodulatory effect of mangiferin and shows an immunoprotective role arbitrated through a reduction in the reactive intermediate-induced oxidative stress in lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages.

Ross and Joyce Bell as Mentors at the University of Vermont

Ross and Joyce Bell as Mentors at the University of Vermont

Ross and joyce bell as mentors at the university of vermont.

Ross and joyce bell as mentors at the university of vermont.

DNA barcoding of African fruit bats (Mammalia, Pteropodidae). The mitochondrial genome does not provide a reliable discrimination between Epomophorus gambianus and Micropteropus pusillus

Sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I ( COI) gene have been shown to be useful for species identification in various groups of animals. However, the DNA barcoding approach has never been tested on African fruit bats of the family Pteropodidae (Mammalia, Chiroptera). In this study, the COI gene was sequenced from 120 bats collected in the Central African Republic and belonging to either Epomophorus gambianus or Micropteropus pusillus, two species easily diagnosed on the basis of morphological characters, such as body size, skull shape and palatal ridges. Two additional molecular markers were used for comparisons: the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and the intron 7 of the nuclear β-fibrinogen ( FGB) gene. Our results reveal an unexpected discordance between mitochondrial and nuclear genes. The nuclear FGB signal agrees with our morphological identifications, as the three alleles detected for E. gambianus are divergent from the fourteen alleles found for M. pusillus. By contrast, this taxonomic distinction is not recovered with the analyses of mitochondrial genes, which support rather a polyphyletic pattern for both species. The conflict between molecular markers is explained by multiple mtDNA introgression events from M. pusillus into E. gambianus or, alternatively, by incomplete lineage sorting of mtDNA haplotypes associated with positive selection on FGB alleles of M. pusillus. Our work shows the failure of DNA barcoding to discriminate between two morphologically distinct fruit bat species and highlights the importance of using both mitochondrial and nuclear markers for taxonomic identification.

Immunomodulatory activity of the aqueous extract of seeds of Abrus precatorius Linn (Jequirity) in mice.

Various compounds of plant origin have been widely investigated since ancient times for their possible immunomodulatory properties as well as for the treatment of a wide range of diseases. To study the immunomodulatory functions of the aqueous extract of the seeds of Abrus precatorius commonly known as Indian liquorice (Fabaceae), a medicinal plant native to central India. Swiss albino mice were intraperitoneally treated with three doses (0.75, 1.25 and 2.5 µg/kg b.w.) of extract for 7 days. Relative organ weight, delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) response, haemagglutination titre (HT) and Phagocytic index (PI) were studied in various groups of animals. The results showed no significant difference in relative organ weight of spleen, liver, thymus and kidney in various groups of animals. Treatment of rats with increasing concentrations of the extract decreased the footpad thickness indicating a dose related inhibitory effect of the extract on delayed type hypersensitivity. In the HT test, the plant extract showed a suppressive effect at all doses, and these changes were significant as the dose increased. Phagocytic index was also increased in a dose dependent manner. The reduction of antibody titre, delayed type hypersensitivity response and the increase in phagocytic index indicates that Abrus precatorius has an inhibitory effect on the immune functions in mice.

Mammalian fauna of Artvin

Artvin has got richest and most varied mammals of Turkey. We provided checklist of the mammalian fauna of Artvin based on direct observations, interviews and available literature.A total of 55 mammals belonging to 20 families (total 6 orders; insectivora (7), chiroptera (14), lagomorpha (1), rodentia (18), carnivora (10) and artiodactyla (5)) were reported in Artvin. Twenty nine mammal species were identified by direct observation, and by observation of breeding areas, traces and feces. Although not observed on site during the field studies or reported by inhabitants, twenty six additional species are considered likely to occur in the study area based on literature information. The extent to which the various groups of animals in the study areas are to be protected under the Bern Convention or cited on the IUCN Red List varies from one group to another. There are no endemic species in Artvin mammal fauna. There are 5 NT, 1 VU, 48 LC, 1 DD species have been introduced. Some of the mammal species that were observed or reported in the study area are listed in Annex 2 (18 species) or Annex 3 (13 species). Key words: Biodiversity, mammals, Artvin-Turkey.

Becoming a Sign: The Mimic’s Activity in Biological Mimicry

From a semiotic perspective biological mimicry can be described as a tripartite system with a double structure that consists of ecological relations between species and semiotic relations of sign. In this article the focus is on the mimic who is the individual benefiting from its resemblance to the cues or signals of other species or to the environment. In establishing the mimetic resemblance the question of mimic’s activity becomes crucial, and the activity can range from the fixed bodily patterns to fully dynamic behavioural displays. The mimic’s activity can be targeted at two other participants of the mimicry system—either at the model or at the receiver. The first possibility is quite common in camouflage and there are several possibilities for mimic’s activity to occur: selecting a resting place or habitat based on conformity with the environment, changing body coloration to correspond to the surrounding environment, covering oneself with particles of the soil. In its activity aimed at the model, the mimic develops a strong semiotic connection with its specific perceptual environment or part of it and obtains a representational character. In the second possibility the activity of a mimetic organism is aimed at the receiver who is confused by the resemblance, and between the two participants an active communicative interaction is established. Such type of mimicry can be exemplified by abstract threat displays found in various groups of animals, for instance a toad’s upright posture as a response to the presence of a snake. From the semiotic viewpoint it can be interpreted as the motive of fear in the predator’s Umwelt being entered into the mimic’s subjective world and manifested in its behaviour. The mimetic organism ends up in an ambiguous position, where it needs to pretend to be something other than it is. In the final part of the article it is argued that the mimetic sign is basically a false designator as the mimic’s activity to become a sign is aimed at a specific type of signs. Rather than signifying belonging to its own species or group, a mimetic sign indicates that its carrier belongs to the type of some other species. The tension between the form and behaviour of mimetic organisms arises from the discrepancy between the type of organism that it essentially is and the type of organism that the mimetic sign it carries imposes on it.

Immunotoxicity of paraquat after subacute exposure to mice

The immunotoxic effect of paraquat (PQ), a herbicide that has been used widely in agriculture was investigated using Balb/c mice. Paraquat was administered at doses of 1, 0.1, and 0.01mg/kg for 21days. Body weight, organ weight, cellularity of spleen, delayed type of hypersensitivity (DTH) response, plaque-forming cell (PFC) assay, hemagglutination titer (HA), quantitative hemolysis of SRBC (QHS) assay, spleen cell subtypes, cytokine production and lymphocyte proliferation assay were studied in various groups of animals. Results showed that high dose of PQ (1mg/kg) could suppress both cellular and humoral activity of the immune system. PQ at medium dose (0.1mg/kg) did not show any changes in organ weight, body weight and spleen cellularity but significantly decreased the proliferation response to PHA and the production of IFNγ. PQ at low dose (0.01mg/kg) did not produce any significant changes in humoral or cellular responses of the immune system. In conclusion, paraquat at high dose has an inhibitory effect on the cell-mediated and humoral immunity. It seems that PQ has no adverse effects on mice immune system at low doses of 0.01mg/kg, which is two times the PQ allowed daily intake (ADI) limit.

Immunomodulatory Activity of Aqueous Extract of Heracleum persicum Desf. in Mice

Studies have demonstrated that plant extracts possess various biological characteristics, including immunomodulatory activity. Heracleum persicum Desf. (Apiaceae), a medicinal plant native to Iran, was studied for its immunomodulatory activity. Immunomodulatory activity of different doses of an aqueous extract of H. persicum, was evaluated in female Swiss albino mice. Mice were treated with three doses (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight) for 5 days. Body weight, relative organ weight, delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) response and haemagglutination titre (HT) were studied in various groups of animals. No significant body weight gain differences were recorded in various groups of animals. The results obtained show a significant increase (P < 0.05) in relative organ weight of spleen and liver, at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg. No elevation in the levels of liver function test (LFT) enzymes and kidney relative weight was observed with the plant doses examined. The H. persicum extract elicited a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the DTH response at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. In the HT test, the plant extract showed a stimulatory effect at all doses, however these changes were significant at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg. No mortality occurred with the tested doses. Overall, H. persicum showed a stimulatory effect on both humoral and cellular immune functions in mice.

Measurement of glomerular filtration rate in the conscious rat

Introduction Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is an important parameter for studying drug-induced impairments on renal function in rats. The GFR is calculated from the concentration of creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in serum and in urine, respectively. Following current protocols serum and urine samples must be taken from the same animal. Thus, in order to determine time-dependent effects it is necessary to use for each time point one separated group of animals. We developed a statistical test which allows analyzing the GFR from two different groups of animals: one used for repeated serum and the other one used for repeated urine analysis. Methods Serum and urine samples were taken from two different sets of rats which were otherwise treated identically, i.e. drug doses, routes of administration (per os or per inhalation) and tap water loading. For each dose group GFR mean, standard deviation and statistical analysis to identify differences between the dose groups were determined. Results After determination of the optimal time points for measurements, the effect on GFR of the three reference compounds, furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide and formoterol, was calculated. The results showed that the diuretic drugs furosemide and hydrochlorothiazide decreased the GFR and the antidiuretic drug formoterol increased the GFR, as counter regulation on urine loss or urine retention, respectively. Discussion A mathematical model and the corresponding algorithm were developed, which can be used to calculate the GFR, and to test for differences between groups from two separated sets of rats, one used for urine, and the other one for serum analysis. This new method has the potential to reduce the number of animals needed and to improve the quality of data generated from various groups of animals in renal function studies.

흰털오가피와 더덕 추출물을 첨가한 발효유 급여가 마우스의 면역기능에 미치는 영향

흰털오가피의 면역활성 증진 효과를 알아보기 위하여 선발된 수컷 마우스를 대상으로 하여 발효유에 흰털오가피 (뿌리 : 잎 : 줄기)와 더덕 열수추출건조물을 (5 : 2 : 1.5) : 1.5 비율로 혼합하여 투여한 그룹 1 mg/mL(A), 3 mg/mL(B), 9 mg/mL(C) 3그룹으로 나누어 임상적용 경로인 경구투여를 선택하여 발효유를 각각 3 mL/kg씩 위내로 직접 투여하였다. 대조군은 발효유만 먹인 그룹(D)과 식염수만 먹인 그룹(E)을 두었다. 흰털오가피의 함량이 ICR계 수컷 마우스의 면역기능에 미치는 영향에 대해 알아본 결과 모든 그룹에서 마우스의 증체량과 체중 증가는 유의성 있는 차이를 보이지 않았고, 7주와 10주령에 안락사 시킨 마우스의 각 장기 무게에서도 간, 신장, 심장, 폐, 고환의 무게에서는 유의성 있는 차이를 보이지 않았다. 비장계수는 7주령 C군과 10주령 B군에서 유의성(p<0.05)있는 증가가 있었으며, 식이 지속기간이 길어질수록 증가된 반면, 흉선계수는 모든 군에서 유의성 있는 증가가 관찰되지 않았다. 항체생산 세포수는 흰털오가피 투여군이 대조군에 비해 증가하였으며, 7주령에 비해 10주령이 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 항원에 대한 항체 생성량을 알아보기 위하여 혈구응집반응을 실시한 결과 흰털오가피 투여군이 대조군에 비하여 증가하는 경향을 보였고 10주령 C군에서 유의성 있는 차이를 보였다. 면역글로블린 농도는 흰털오가피 투여군에서 증가하였고, 7 및 10주령 C군에서 유의성이 있었다. We have investigated the immunomodulatory activity of water extracts of Acanthopanax divaricatus var. alveofructus in male ICR mice. Mice were administrated with fermented milk containing freeze-dried extract 3 mg/Kg (A), 9 mg/kg (B), 27 mg/Kg (C) per body weight with A. divaricatus var. alveofructus (loots : leaves : stem) : Codonopsis lanceolata = (5 : 2 : 1.5) : 1.5 for 7 and 10 weeks, respectively. Body weight, relative organ weight, cellularity of lymphoid organs, plaque- forming cell (PFC) assay, agglutination (AGG) test and lymphoproliferation were examined in various groups of animals. Any significant differences of body weight gain were not recorded in the tested ICR mice. There was significant different (p<0.05) in the spleen index in B group of 10 weeks and C group of 7 weeks fed mouse. The thymus gain weight was increased during administration of the extract, but there was no significant increase on other organs gain. Humoral immunity as measured by PFC showed more decreased PFC level in 10 weeks than in 7 weeks. In the HT, A. divaricatus var. albeofructus extract also showed a significant increase (p<0.05) in C group of 10 weeks. Administration of extracts from A. divaricatus var. albeofructus increased significantly in the production of IgG antibodies on the mice immunized with SRBC in B group of 7 and 10 weeks (p<0.05).

DNA barcoding of Neotropical bats: species identification and discovery within Guyana

AbstractSequence diversity in the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene has been shown to be an effective tool for species identification and discovery in various groups of animals, but has not been extensively tested in mammals. We address this gap by examining the performance of DNA barcodes in the discrimination of 87 species of bats from Guyana. Eighty‐one of these species showed both low intraspecific variation (mean = 0.60%), and clear sequence divergence from their congeners (mean = 7.80%), while the other six showed deeply divergent intraspecific lineages suggesting that they represent species complexes. Although further work is needed to examine patterns of sequence diversity at a broader geographical scale, the present study validates the effectiveness of barcoding for the identification of regional bat assemblages, even highly diverse tropical faunas.