Variations In Atmospheric CO2 Concentration Research Articles

Simulation of the global biogeochemical carbon cycle with account for its seasonal dynamics and analysis of variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Simulation of the global biogeochemical carbon cycle with account for its seasonal dynamics and analysis of variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations

The role of polar ocean's in glacial/interglacial variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration and biogeochemical cycles

The role of polar ocean's in glacial/interglacial variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration and biogeochemical cycles

The role of shelf nutrients on glacial‐interglacial CO2: A negative feedback

In the past 800 thousand years and before industrialization, the largest variations in atmospheric CO2 concentration (pCO2) occurred in connection with the glacial cycles that characterized Earth's climate over this period. One curious feature of at least the last four glacial‐interglacial cycles is that atmospheric pCO2 reached about the same upper limit of 280 ppm during peak interglacial periods and about the same lower limit of 180 ppm during peak glacial periods. Here, we show using a numerical model of earth system that enhanced shelf sediment weathering during glacial sea level lowstands tends to raise pCO2 even after carbonate compensation and thus stabilize pCO2 from further reduction. This is because not all nutrients from weathering will be utilized by biology but more importantly because the spatial distributions of carbon and phosphorus from weathering become decoupled in such a way that carbon is preferentially stored in the upper ocean and phosphorus in the deep ocean. In addition, the C:P ratios in continental margin sediments are generally much higher than the Redfield ratio due to preferential remineralization of phosphorus in shelf sediment diagenesis. When these factors are accounted for in our model, the input of organic matter, which corresponds to the observed negative shift in ocean δ13C during glacial periods, raises pCO2 by approximately 14 ppm. The same mechanisms operating in the opposite directions during interglacial highstand tend to lower pCO2 and stabilize it from further increase. The impact of sea level‐driven continental shelf exposure and submersion of CO2 is therefore a negative feedback that may have contributed to limiting the variation of Pleistocene pCO2 to the observed 100 ppm range.

A global coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian model and 1 × 1 km CO<sub>2</sub> surface flux dataset for high-resolution atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> transport simulations

Abstract. We designed a method to simulate atmospheric CO2 concentrations at several continuous observation sites around the globe using surface fluxes at a very high spatial resolution. The simulations presented in this study were performed using the Global Eulerian-Lagrangian Coupled Atmospheric model (GELCA), comprising a Lagrangian particle dispersion model coupled to a global atmospheric tracer transport model with prescribed global surface CO2 flux maps at a 1 × 1 km resolution. The surface fluxes used in the simulations were prepared by assembling the individual components of terrestrial, oceanic and fossil fuel CO2 fluxes. This experimental setup (i.e. a transport model running at a medium resolution, coupled to a high-resolution Lagrangian particle dispersion model together with global surface fluxes at a very high resolution), which was designed to represent high-frequency variations in atmospheric CO2 concentration, has not been reported at a global scale previously. Two sensitivity experiments were performed: (a) using the global transport model without coupling to the Lagrangian dispersion model, and (b) using the coupled model with a reduced resolution of surface fluxes, in order to evaluate the performance of Eulerian-Lagrangian coupling and the role of high-resolution fluxes in simulating high-frequency variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. A correlation analysis between observed and simulated atmospheric CO2 concentrations at selected locations revealed that the inclusion of both Eulerian-Lagrangian coupling and high-resolution fluxes improves the high-frequency simulations of the model. The results highlight the potential of a coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian model in simulating high-frequency atmospheric CO2 concentrations at many locations worldwide. The model performs well in representing observations of atmospheric CO2 concentrations at high spatial and temporal resolutions, especially for coastal sites and sites located close to sources of large anthropogenic emissions. While this study focused on simulations of CO2 concentrations, the model could be used for other atmospheric compounds with known estimated emissions.

Analysis of spatial and temporal variations of carbon dioxide over China using SCIAMACHY satellite observations during 2003–2005

This study aims to assess CO2 levels in China, based on the dry air column-averaged mixing ratios of CO2 measured by the Scanning Imaging Absorption spectrometer for Atmospheric CartograpHY (SCIAMACHY) instrument on board ENVISAT and emission inventories. A land cover and statistical data set, the Regional emission inventory in Asia (REAS), was also used in this study. The results show that the spatial variations of the CO2 concentration in the whole of China are obvious, and with clear seasonal fluctuation during 2003–2005. The monthly averaged variability of CO2 over China fluctuates, with the peak occurring in April to May and the trough occurring in August to October. The largest peak-to-trough amplitude was about 16 ppm in this period. The spatial and temporal variations of CO2 had a strong correlation with anthropogenic CO2 emissions and regional terrestrial ecosystem, as well as local meteorological conditions. This paper illustrates that satellite data are promising for obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the variations of atmospheric CO2 concentrations and of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere.

Coupled micrometeorological and biological processes on atmospheric CO2 concentrations at the land–ocean boundary, NE coast of India

Abstract This study reveals that land–sea breezes, atmospheric stability and influence of net ecosystem metabolism for the conversion of organic carbon to atmospheric CO2 are the major driving forces behind the variation of atmospheric CO2 at the land–ocean boundary, northeast coast of India. The seasonal variation of partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and its efflux from the coastal water were several fold higher in the pre-monsoon (1807.9 ± 757.03 μ atm; 579.03 ± 172.9 μM m−2 h−1) than in the monsoon (1070.5 ± 328.5 μ atm; 258.96 ± 185.65 μM m−2 h−1) and the post-monsoon (615.7 ± 121.6 μ atm; 53.27 ± 19.24 μM m−2 h−1). The mean photic zone productivity to column respiration ratio was 0.12 ± 0.08, revealing predominance of heterotrophic processes. Community respiration was at minimum during monsoon (38.82 ± 8.63 mM C m−2 d−1) but was at maximum (173.8 ± 111.8 mM C m−2 d−1) during pre-monsoon and intermittent (125.07 ± 11.97 mM C m−2 d−1) during post-monsoon. Diurnal variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration were determined by local air circulations and atmospheric stability. Seasonal variations of atmospheric CO2 bear a significant signature of biological processes occurring in the coastal water by means of air–sea exchange, markedly affected by the net ecosystem metabolism. Important predictors of coastal atmospheric CO2 in decreasing order of explained variability are wind direction, stability, CO2 efflux and wind velocity.

Sensitivity of groundwater recharge under irrigated agriculture to changes in climate, CO2 concentrations and canopy structure

Estimating groundwater recharge in response to increased atmospheric CO2 concentration and climate change is critical for future management of agricultural water resources in arid or semi-arid regions. Based on climate projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this study quantified groundwater recharge under irrigated agriculture in response to variations of atmospheric CO2 concentrations (550 and 970 ppm) and average daily temperature (+1.1 and +6.4 °C compared to current conditions). HYDRUS 1D, a model used to simulate water movement in unsaturated, partially saturated, or fully saturated porous media, was used to simulate the impact of climate change on vadose zone hydrologic processes and groundwater recharge for three typical crop sites (alfalfa, almonds and tomatoes) in the San Joaquin watershed in California. Plant growth with the consideration of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration was simulated using the heat unit theory. A modified version of the Penman–Monteith equation was used to account for the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration. Irrigation amount and timing was based on crop potential evapotranspiration. The results of this study suggest that increases in atmospheric CO2 and average daily temperature may have significant effects on groundwater recharge. Increasing temperature caused a temporal shift in plant growth patterns and redistributed evapotranspiration and irrigation water use earlier in the growing season resulting in a decrease in groundwater recharge under alfalfa and almonds and an increase under tomatoes. Elevating atmospheric CO2 concentrations generally decreased groundwater recharge for all crops due to decreased evapotranspiration resulting in decreased irrigation water use. Increasing average daily temperature by 1.1 and 6.4 °C and atmospheric CO2 concentration to 550 and 970 ppm led to a decrease in cumulative groundwater recharge for most scenarios. Overall, the results indicate that groundwater recharge may be very sensitive to potential future climate changes.

Diurnal variation of atmospheric CO2 concentration and δ13C in an urban atmosphere during winter—role of the Nocturnal Boundary Layer

The paper presents the importance of the Nocturnal Boundary Layer in driving the diurnal variability of the atmospheric CO2 mixing ratio and the carbon isotope ratio at ground level from an urban station in India. Our observations are the first of their kind from this region. The atmospheric CO2 mixing ratio and the carbon isotopic ratio were measured for both the morning (05:30–07:30 IST) and afternoon time (16:00–18:00 IST) air samples at 5 m above ground level in Bangalore city, Karnataka State (12° 58′ N, 77° 38′ E, masl = 920 m) for a 10 day period during the winter of 2008. We observed a change of ~7% the in CO2 mixing ratio between the morning and afternoon time air samples. A stable isotope analysis of CO2 from morning samples showed a depletion in the carbon isotope ratio by ~2‰ compared to the afternoon samples. Along with the ground-based measurement of air samples, data of radiosonde measurements were also obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department to identify the vertical atmospheric structure at different time in a day. We proposed the presence or absence of the NBL as a controlling factor for the observed variability in the mixing ratio as well as its isotopic composition. Here we used the Keeling model approach to find out the carbon isotope ratio for the local sources. The local sources have further been characterized as anthropogenic and biological respiration (in %) using a two-component mixing model. We also used a vertical mixing model based on the concept of the mixing of isotopically depleted (carbon isotope) “polluted air” (PA) with isotopically enriched “free atmospheric air” (FA) above. Using this modeling approach, the contribution of FA at ground level is being estimated for both the morning and afternoon time air samples.

Survival and Growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in Liquid Egg Products Varying by Temperature, Product Composition, and Carbon Dioxide Concentration

Cryogenic cooling of shell eggs with carbon dioxide (CO(2)) is known to improve egg content quality through rapid cooling as well as by increasing internal CO(2) levels. A study was undertaken to determine the effects of variations in atmospheric CO(2) concentrations (aerobically stored, flushed with CO(2) and sealed, or bubbled with CO(2)) on the survival and growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in liquid egg products including whole egg, albumen, yolk, and albumen + 1% yolk. Egg products were inoculated with a three-strain composite of Salmonella Enteritidis at ca. 4 log colony-forming units (CFU)/mL and stored at 7 degrees C or 10 degrees C for 8 or 4 days, respectively, or at ca. 2 log CFU/mL and stored at 23 degrees C and 37 degrees C for 48 or 24 hours, respectively. Salmonella populations differed based on variations in liquid egg composition (p < 0.05). Manipulating the atmospheric concentrations of CO(2) in which liquid egg products were stored did not significantly inhibit the growth of Salmonella Enteritidis (p > 0.05) in yolk-containing egg products or affect the inhibitory activity of albumen-containing products. Populations of Salmonella were static at 7 degrees C over the entire storage period and significant growth occurred in whole egg and yolk stored at 10 degrees C. Populations in egg stored at 23 degrees C and 37 degrees C were greater in yolk than in whole egg, although whole egg had populations greater than in albumen or albumen +1% yolk (p < 0.05). Results of this investigation suggest that increasing atmospheric CO(2) to enhance egg quality should not promote the growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in eggs.

Links between iron supply, marine productivity, sea surface temperature, and CO2 over the last 1.1 Ma

Paleoclimatic reconstructions have provided a unique data set to test the sensitivity of climate system to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. However, the mechanisms behind glacial/interglacial (G/IG) variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations observed in the Antarctic ice cores are still not fully understood. Here we present a new multiproxy data set of sea surface temperatures (SST), dust and iron supply, and marine export productivity, from the marine sediment core PS2489‐2/ODP Site 1090 located in the subantarctic Atlantic, that allow us to evaluate various hypotheses on the role of the Southern Ocean (SO) in modulating atmospheric CO2 concentrations back to 1.1 Ma. We show that Antarctic atmospheric temperatures are closely linked to changes in SO surface temperatures over the last 800 ka and use this to synchronize the timescales of our marine and the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) Dome C (EDC) records. The close correlation observed between iron inputs and marine export production over the entire interval implies that the process of iron fertilization of marine biota has been a recurrent process operating in the subantarctic region over the G/IG cycles of the last 1.1 Ma. However, our data suggest that marine productivity can only explain a fraction of atmospheric CO2 changes (up to around 40–50 ppmv), occurring at glacial maxima in each glacial stage. In this sense, the good correlation of our SST record to the EDC temperature reconstruction suggests that the initial glacial CO2 decrease, as well as the change in the amplitude of the CO2 cycles observed around 400 ka, was most likely driven by physical processes, possibly related to changes in Antarctic sea ice extent, surface water stratification, and westerly winds position.

Using a Tree Ring δ 13C Annual Series to Reconstruct Atmospheric CO 2 Concentration over the Past 300 Years

The annual series of δ^13C were measured in tree rings of three Cryptomeria fortunei disks (CF-1, CF-2, and CF3) collected from West Tianmu Mountain, Zhejiang Province, China, according to cross-dating tree ring ages. There was no obvious decreasing trend of the δ^13C annual time series of CF-2 before 1835. However, from 1835 to 1982 the three tree ring δ^13C annual series exhibited similar decreasing trends that were significantly (P≤0.001) correlated. The distribution characteristics of a scatter diagram between estimated δ^13C series of CF-2 from modeling and the atmospheric CO2 concentration extracted from the Law Dome ice core from 1840 to 1978 were analyzed and a curvilinear regression equation for reconstructing atmospheric CO2 concentration was established with R^2=0.98. Also, a test of independent samples indicated that between 1685 and 1839 the reconstructed atmospheric CO2 concentration using the δ^13C series of CF-2 had a close relationship with the Law Dome and Siple ice cores, with a standard deviation of 1.98. The general increasing trend of the reconstructed atmospheric CO2 concentration closely reflected the long-term variation of atmospheric CO2 concentration recorded both before and after the Industrial Revolution. Between 1685 and 1840 the evaluated atmospheric CO2 concentration was stable, but after 1840 it exhibited a rapid increase. Given a longer δ^13C annual time series of tree rings, it was feasible to rebuild a representative time series to describe the atmospheric CO2 concentration for an earlier period and for years that were not in the ice core record.

Seasonal and Long-Term Variations in Atmospheric CO2 and 85Kr in Tsukuba, Central Japan

Since February 1992, measurements of atmospheric CO2 at 200 m above the ground have been taken from a meteorological tower (lat 36.1°N, long 140.1°E, 25 m a.s.l.) in Tsukuba, central Japan. We have examined seasonal/long-term variations in atmospheric CO2, based on atmospheric 85Kr, a noble gas with well-known source and sink terms, monitored continuously at weekly intervals in Tsukuba since May 1995. During the annual cycle, the daily mean values of atmospheric CO2 in the afternoons (1300-1600 JST) showed maximum in late April, except in 2002, and minimum in late August or early September. The seasonal variations in atmospheric 85Kr, which is low in summer and high in winter, were caused by the seasonal variations in the large-scale atmospheric circulation, and latitudinal distribution of atmospheric 85Kr. Compared with seasonal variations in atmospheric 85Kr, the draw-down (DD) and buildup (BU) for atmospheric CO2 occurred about 1 week and 3 weeks later, respectively. The peak-to-trough amplitude of de-trended seasonal variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations ranged from 11 to 14 ppm. A decrease in the seasonal CO2 minimum occurred with a decrease in the 85Kr concentration, showing the effect of air mass transport from different origins. Unlike the minimum, the maximum CO2 did not vary as expected from the air mass transport. The daily mean values of atmospheric CO2 increased at an average rate of 2.0 ppm yr−1, with a range from −0.5 to 4 ppm yr−1. While both CO2 and 85Kr are emitted into the atmosphere, due to energy consumption, the growth rate of atmospheric CO2 showed a pattern different from that of atmospheric 85Kr (0.03 Bq m−3 yr−1).

Comparing carbon isotope composition of bulk wood and holocellulose fromQuercus cerris,Fraxinus ornusandPinus radiatatree rings

Tree-ring δ13C is widely employed in ecophysiological studies, because it represents an integrated proxy of the ratio between photosynthesis (A) and stomatal conductance (g), which expresses the intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE), strongly affected by the environmental conditions experienced by the plant during its life span. Tree-ring δ13C also reflects long term variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration and of its carbon isotope composition, partly due to increasing anthropogenic emissions. Carbon isotope abundances in tree rings can be assessed on bulk wood as well as on wood biochemical components, wich show different δ13C values because of secondary discrimination during biosynthesis. We present the results of a comparison between δ13C values of bulk wood and holocellulose samples obtained from the last three (1999, 2000 and 2001) annual growth rings of two hardwood (Quercus cerris L. and Fraxinus ornus L. and one conifer (Pinus radiata D. Don, species. We found that 13C values differed significantly among tree species, both in the case of holocellulose and bulk wood, but only in the case of P. radiata bulk wood samples tend to provide more negative δ13C values than holocellulose, as reported in the literature. We suggest that, at least for the two hardwood species studied, bulk wood is a suitable material to work with for δ13C assessment, whilst in P. radiata holocellulose could provide a more stable and reliable index, when studying plant ecophysiological responses to changing environmental conditions.

Bicarbonate uptake by Southern Ocean phytoplankton

Marine phytoplankton have the potential to significantly buffer future increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. However, in order for CO2 fertilization to have an effect on carbon sequestration to the deep ocean, the increase in dissolved CO2 must stimulate primary productivity; that is, marine phototrophs must be CO2 limited [Riebesell et al., 1993]. Estimation of the extent of bicarbonate (HCO3−) uptake in the oceans is therefore required to determine whether the anthropogenic carbon sources will enhance carbon flux to the deep ocean. Using short‐term 14CO2‐disequilibrium experiments during the Southern Ocean Iron Experiment (SOFeX), we show that HCO3− uptake by Southern Ocean phytoplankton is significant. Since the majority of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the ocean is in the form of bicarbonate, the biological pump may therefore be insensitive to anthropogenic CO2. Approximately half of the DIC uptake observed was attributable to direct HCO3− uptake, the other half being direct CO2 uptake mediated either by passive diffusion or active uptake mechanisms. The increase in growth rates and decrease in CO2 concentration associated with the iron fertilization did not trigger any noticeable changes in the mode of DIC acquisition, indicating that under most environmental conditions the carbon concentrating mechanism (CCM) is constitutive. A low‐CO2 treatment induced an increase in uptake of CO2, which we attributed to increased extracellular carbonic anhydrase activity, at the expense of direct HCO3− transport across the plasmalemma. Isotopic disequilibrium experimental results are consistent with Southern Ocean carbon stable isotope fractionation data from this and other studies. Although iron fertilization has been shown to significantly enhance phytoplankton growth and may potentially increase carbon flux to the deep ocean, an important source of the inorganic carbon taken up by phytoplankton in this study was HCO3−, whose concentration is negligibly affected by the anthropogenic rise in CO2. We conclude that biological productivity in this region of the world's ocean is unlikely to be directly regulated by natural or anthropogenic variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations because of the presence of a constitutive CCM.

Late-glacial and early Holocene variations in atmospheric CO2 concentration indicated by high-resolution stomatal index data

Data from ice cores suggest that Late-glacial and early Holocene atmospheric CO2 variations were rather conservative, the most important change being a gradual Younger Dryas increase. By contrast, palaeo-CO2 records based on the inverse relationship between CO2 partial pressure and stomatal frequency of terrestrial plant leaves reflect a more dynamic CO2 evolution, including an abrupt decrease at the Allerød/Younger Dryas transition. Here we present a Late-glacial and early Holocene CO2 record based on stomatal index data from leaves preserved in the sediments of a small lake in southwestern Sweden. Three independent records constructed from stomatal index data of Salix polaris, Salix herbacea and Betula nana leaves were combined to form a high-resolution CO2 reconstruction for the period 12 800–10 800 cal yr BP. Atmospheric CO2 concentrations were found to have decreased rapidly from c. 260 ppmv to 210–215 ppmv within 200 years during the Allerød (GI-1)/Younger Dryas (GS-1) transition. After 100–200 years, CO2 concentration started to gradually increase to 270–290 ppmv at the end of the Younger Dryas stadial (GS-1). CO2 concentrations were relatively stable during the early Holocene, except for a short-lived period of lower (240–250 ppmv) values c. 11 350–11 200 cal yr BP. This Late-glacial and early Holocene CO2 evolution partly resembles previous stomatal-based CO2 reconstructions, and the overall trend is almost identical to that seen in ice-core records. The amplitude of change is, however, markedly higher in the Swedish stomatal-based record compared to the ice cores. This difference may partly be accounted for by the inherent smoothing of ice-core CO2 records caused by diffusion, but a major part of the difference in amplitude between ice-core and stomatal-based records still remains to be explained. Based on our reconstruction, atmospheric CO2 may have played an important role in climate dynamics during the last deglaciation.

TransCom 3 CO2 inversion intercomparison: 1. Annual mean control results and sensitivity to transport and prior flux information

Spatial and temporal variations of atmospheric CO2 concentrations contain information about surface sources and sinks, which can be quantitatively interpreted through tracer transport inversion. Previous CO2 inversion calculations obtained differing results due to different data, methods and transport models used. To isolate the sources of uncertainty, we have conducted a set of annual mean inversion experiments in which 17 different transport models or model variants were used to calculate regional carbon sources and sinks from the same data with a standardized method. Simulated transport is a significant source of uncertainty in these calculations, particularly in the response to prescribed “background” fluxes due to fossil fuel combustion, a balanced terrestrial biosphere, and air‐sea gas exchange. Individual model-estimated fluxes are often a direct reflection of their response to these background fluxes. Models that generate strong surface maxima near background exchange locations tend to require larger uptake near those locations. Models with weak surface maxima tend to have less uptake in those same regions but may infer small sources downwind. In some cases, individual model flux estimates cannot be analyzed through simple relationships to background flux responses but are

Temporal variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration in a temperate deciduous forest in central Japan

Temporal variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration in a temperate deciduous forest in central Japan

Temporal variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration in a temperate deciduous forest in central Japan

In order to examine the temporal variation of the atmospheric CO2 concentration in a temperate deciduous forest, and its relationship with meteorological conditions, continuous measurements of CO2 and meteorological parameters have been made since 1993 on a tower at Takayama in the central part of Japan. In addition to an average secular increase in atmospheric CO2 of 1.8 ppm yr−1, diurnal variation with a maximum during the night-time to early morning and a minimum in the afternoon is observed from late spring to early fall; the diurnal cycle is not so clearly observed in the remaining seasons of the year. A concentration difference between above and below the canopy, and its diurnal variation, can also be seen clearly in summer. Daily mean concentration data show a prominent seasonal cycle. The maximum and the minimum of the seasonal cycle occur in April and from mid August to mid September, respectively. Day-to-day changes in the diurnal cycle of CO2 are highly dependent on the day-to-day variations in meteorological conditions. However, CO2 variations on longer time scales (>10 d) appear to be linearly related to changes in respiration. At Takayama, variations in the 10-d standard deviation of daily mean CO2 data and 10-d averaged respiration show distinct relationships with soil temperature during spring and fall seasons. In spring, respiration has a stronger exponential dependence on soil temperature than in fall. Interestingly, in summer when soil temperature becomes greater than about 15 °C, biological respiration becomes more variable and independent of the soil temperature. Thus, at the Takayama site, the Q10 relationship is seasonally dependent, and does not represent well the biological respiration process when the soil temperature rises above 15 °C.

TransCom 3 CO2 inversion intercomparison: 1. Annual mean control results and sensitivity to transport and prior flux information

Spatial and temporal variations of atmospheric CO2 concentrations contain information about surface sources and sinks, which can be quantitatively interpreted through tracer transport inversion. Previous CO2 inversion calculations obtained differing results due to different data, methods and transport models used. To isolate the sources of uncertainty, we have conducted a set of annual mean inversion experiments in which 17 different transport models or model variants were used to calculate regional carbon sources and sinks from the same data with a standardized method. Simulated transport is a significant source of uncertainty in these calculations, particularly in the response to prescribed “background” fluxes due to fossil fuel combustion, a balanced terrestrial biosphere, and air—sea gas exchange. Individual model-estimated fluxes are often a direct reflection of their response to these background fluxes. Models that generate strong surface maxima near background exchange locations tend to require larger uptake near those locations. Models with weak surface maxima tend to have less uptake in those same regions but may infer small sources downwind. In some cases, individual model flux estimates cannot be analyzed through simple relationships to background flux responses but are likely due to local transport differences or particular responses at individual CO2 observing locations. The response to the background biosphere exchange generates the greatest variation in the estimated fluxes, particularly over land in the Northern Hemisphere. More observational data in the tropical regions may help in both lowering the uncertain tropical land flux uncertainties and constraining the northern land estimates because of compensation between these two broad regions in the inversion. More optimistically, examination of the model-mean retrieved fluxes indicates a general insensitivity to the prior fluxes and the prior flux uncertainties. Less uptake in the Southern Ocean than implied by oceanographic observations, and an evenly distributed northern land sink, remain in spite of changes in this aspect of the inversion setup.

Trend, seasonal and diurnal variations of atmospheric CO2 in Beijing

The concentration of atmospheric CO2 in Beijing increased rapidly at a mean growth rate of 3.7% · a−1 from 1993 to 1995. After displaying a peak of (409.7±25.9) μmol · mol−1 in 1995, it decreased slowly. Both the almost stable anthropogenic CO2 source and increasing biotic CO2 sink contribute to the drop of CO2 concentration from 1995 to 2000. The seasonal variation of CO2 concentration exhibits a clear cycle with a maximum in winter, averaging (426.8±20.6) μmol · mol−1, and a minimum in summer, averaging (369.1±6.1) μmol·mol−1. The seasonal variation of CO2 concentration is mainly controlled by phenology. The mean diurnal variation of atmospheric CO2 concentration for a year in Beijing is highly clear: daily maximum CO2 concentration usually occurs at night, but daily minimum CO2 concentration does in the daytime, with a mean diurnal difference more than 34.7 μmol·mol−1. It has been revealed that the interannual variations of atmospheric CO2 concentration in winter and autumn regulated the interannual trend of atmospheric CO2, whereas the interannual variation of CO2 concentration in summer affected the general tendency of atmospheric CO2 in a less degree.