Variation In Water Consumption Research Articles

The water footprint of pig farms in Ireland based on commercial farm data

Livestock production is getting increased attention due to its impact on natural resources, and freshwater is one such limited resource. To reduce the pressure on freshwater use and develop sustainable livestock systems from farm-to-fork we need to study the whole production cycle, and look for hotspots of major freshwater use. Considering this, we chose intensive pork production as our focal livestock system, since it is one the most eaten meats globally. We focused on pork production in Ireland and studied the freshwater use (green and blue) from cradle-to-farm gate using the water footprint (WFP) method. Detailed farm data (e.g. diet composition, production data) were combined with on-farm water meter data to explore variations in water consumption between farms, and potential explanatory variables for differences in consumption between farms. So far, there have been no WFP studies in pork production that explored this, and insight into variation could help to identify options for improvement. We analyzed the direct (on-farm) and indirect (off-farm) green and blue water footprint of 10 Irish pig farms. Our results show that the average total WFP, including the direct and indirect water footprint, was 2537 L/kg pork, which is at the low end of previously published studies. The indirect green water footprint related to the production of purchased feed was responsible for the largest share (99 %) of the total WFP. The direct blue water footprint formed only a minor component of the total WFP (14 L/kg pork), with drinking water playing the major role. We can conclude from this study that variation in WFP between the least and most efficient farms was small (Q3-Q1 = 181 L/kg pork); nevertheless, this indicates that efficiencies of around 7 % could be gained by the least efficient cohort of farms by adjusting on-farm management practices. We also found a weak negative correlation between WFP and farm size, and WFP and meat produced. Overall, this study suggests that to reduce the burden on freshwater resources and reduce the pork WFP, future research should focus on the feed related impacts.

Optimization of maize irrigation strategy in Xinjiang, China by AquaCrop based on a four-year study

Global water scarcity has become a non-negligible problem that threatens the sustainable development of agriculture. In order to alleviate the contradiction between grain demand and water resource constraints, it is particularly important to explore appropriate irrigation strategy so as to synergistically increase grain yield and water use efficiency (WUE). The AquaCrop model were locally calibrated to simulate optimal irrigation amount for different hydrological years using a four-year field measurements (from 2017 to 2020) of maize with two irrigation levels (2400 m3/ha and 4800 m3/ha) in Shihezi, Xinjiang, China. On this basis, regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies were optimized based on the variation of water consumption and soil water content (SWC) during the maize growth period. Results suggest that the optimal irrigation amount under static strategy (fixed proportion irrigation in growing season) in the wet, normal, and dry years was 4733 m3/ha, 5381 m3/ha, and 6090 m3/ha, respectively. In dynamic strategies, the optimized RDI4 (65% Ir (the amount of water required for each irrigation interval) at R2-R5 stage) and RDI5 strategy (85% Ir at V6-V12 stage and 85% Ir at R2-R5 stage) can save irrigation water while maintaining high yield. Under the premise of basically maintaining high yield (18Mg/ha), compared with each year's irrigation amount of 4800 m3/ha, the RDI4 strategy can reduce the irrigation amount by 4.33% in 2017; although the irrigation amount was slightly increased by 2.77% under the RDI5 strategy in 2018, the yield could be increased by 3.65%; in 2019, the RDI5 strategy can save 49.44% of irrigation water, and the RDI4 strategy will save 24.13% of irrigation water in 2020. From this study, it is recommended that a single irrigation amount of 65% Ir in R2 to R5 stages of maize growth or 85% Ir in V6 to V12 stages and 85% Ir in R2 to R5 stages can save irrigation water while maintaining high yield (18 Mg/ha).

Analysis of operation of heat exchangers of a heating system in the arrangement of reliable and safe heat supply of residential buildings

The arrangement of heat supply of residential buildings with independent connection to external heating networks is considered, which ensures the reliability of heat supply and the necessary comfort in the premises in cold weather conditions after the official termination of the heating season or before it begins due to the supply of water from the return main of the heating network after the DHW heat exchangers. A mathematical model describing the non-stationary modes of operation of heaters of the heating system under the conditions of the implementation of this arrangement is constructed and studied. Calculations were carried out using this model, including numerical simulation on a computer using the Monte Carlo method. It is established that in this case, due to fluctuations in the waste water consumption following the daily variation in water consumption at the DHW, there occurs a decrease in the average heat transfer coefficient of the heater of the heating system and its temperature efficiency due to the fact that these values depend on the flow rate in a non-linear way, and their growth during the period of increased water intake at the DHW does not compensate for the decrease during the reduction of water consumption. It is noted that in this case, the reduction of the heat transfer coefficient lies within the usual error of engineering calculation, and this effect can be neglected. It is proved that, with a small number of heat transfer units in the heater of the heating system attributed to the heated flow, the total amount of heat transferred can decrease quite significantly (by up to 30 percent); however, with a rational choice of the heater size, such a decrease is within the limits allowed by the margins applied when setting the flow rate of delivery water and determining the heat transfer area.

The Impact of Public Policy Measures during the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Characteristics of Urban Wastewater in the Republic of Serbia

The change in the way of life caused by the introduction of social restriction measures (closures, the restriction of working hours, and restriction of movement) by governments and thus, the resulting changes in people’s behavior, have affected all aspects of life, i.e., social activities, business, the environment and the performance of the infrastructure of the water supply system. Social distancing policies around the world in response to the pandemic have led to spatio-temporal variations in water consumption and therefore, to changes in the flow of wastewater, creating potential problems in the infrastructure, operation and quality of services. The goal of this work was to examine how these changes and how the pandemic itself affected the characteristics of municipal wastewater. Data on the quantity and quality of municipal wastewater in four settlements of different sizes in the Republic of Serbia in the period from 2015 to 2022 were collected. The data indicated an increase in the amount of wastewater generated in 2020, which may be a consequence of excessive water use. An increase in the mean concentrations of most parameters in 2020 compared to the previous five-year average was also observed. The most significant changes were observed concerning the concentrations of organic matter (2–124%), nitrogen (6–80%), phosphorus (14–91%), suspended matter (8–308%), fats and oils (97–218%) and surfactants (12–110%). Changes in terms of increasing concentrations were also noticed after the peak of the pandemic, i.e., in the period from 2021 to 2022. In addition, an increase in the COD/BOD ratio from around 2 to around 4 in the year 2020 was also observed (COD—Chemical Oxygen Demand; BOD—Biological Oxygen Demand). This is very important and should be taken into account in wastewater treatment procedures in order to achieve high efficiency in the operation of the plant itself.

Predictors of Variations in Residential Water Consumption in Central Texas

Background: The 100th Meridian in Texas aligns with a corridor of large and rapidly growing urban areas with a growing water demand and limited supply. Understanding the variations in residential water consumption may assist with identifying the characteristics associated with disproportionate water consumption that may be responsive to policy changes and enforcement. Methods: Data from the San Antonio Water System, the Bexar County Appraisal District, and the American Community Survey were utilized. The average daily water consumption was estimated for the seasons and a total year for more than 300,000 single-family residences between 2009 and 2015. The presence of a swimming pool, residential parcel hectares, size of the living space, and per capita income were examined as predictors of the variations in residential water consumption using hierarchal modeling. Results: The presence of swimming pools and a residential property’s value were the strongest predictors of water consumption. Parcel hectares and household income were positively associated with water consumption. A quartile analysis of select independent variables identified the disproportionate variations of water consumption of units with large yards, swimming pools, and high values. Conclusions: The findings indicate a strong association between variations in residential water consumption and both irrigation and swimming pool water used, which emphasize a need to focus conservation efforts on higher-valued housing and residences with swimming pools and the consideration of tiered pricing.

Impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) spread-prevention actions on urban water consumption

This article aims to assess the impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) spread-prevention actions on water consumption, based on a case study in Joinville, Southern Brazil. Residential water consumption data, obtained through telemetry in two periods (before and after a governmental action imposing quarantine and social isolation), were analyzed. Complementarily, the analyses were also applied to the commercial, industrial and public consumption categories. For the analysis, Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric tests were applied and Prais-Winsten regression models were adjusted. The results of the Wilcoxon test show that there are significant differences between the analyzed periods, indicating a water consumption drop in the commercial, industrial and public categories, and an increase in the residential category. The regression model results confirm the effect of the restrictive actions in reducing consumption in non-residential categories. The results also indicate an increase in water consumption, which was steeper in apartment buildings than in houses, whether isolated or grouped in condominiums. A weak association was found between the variation in water consumption and the spatial distribution of buildings. Understanding water consumption related aspects is important to gather essential information to ensure the urban water supply system is resilient in a pandemic situation.

The Variation in Water Consumption by Transpiration of Qinghai Spruce among Canopy Layers in the Qilian Mountains, Northwestern China

It is important for integrated forest-water management to develop a better understanding of the variation of tree transpiration among different canopy layers in the forests and its response to soil moisture and weather conditions. The results will provide insights into water consumption by trees occupying different social positions of the forests. In the present study, an experiment was conducted in the Qilian Mountains, northwest China, and 13 trees, i.e., 4–5 trees from each one of dominant (the relative tree height (HR) > 1.65), subdominant (1.25 < HR ≤ 1.65) and intermediate-suppressed (HR ≤ 1.25) layers) were chosen as sample trees in a pure Qinghai spruce (Picea crassifolia Kom.) forest stand. The sap flux density of sample trees, soil moisture of main root zone (0 to 60 cm) and meteorological conditions in open field were observed simultaneously from July to October of 2015 and 2016. The results showed that (1) The mean daily stand transpiration for the study period in 2015 and 2016 (July–October), was 0.408 and 0.313 mm·day−1, and the cumulative stand transpiration was 54.84 and 40.97 mm, accounting for 24.14% (227.2 mm) and 16.39% (249.9 mm) of the total precipitation over the same periods, respectively. (2) The transpiration varied greatly among canopy layers, and the transpiration of the dominant and codominant layers was the main contributors to the stand transpiration, contributing 86.05% and 81.28% of the stand transpiration, respectively, in 2015 and 2016. (3) The stand transpiration was strongly affected by potential evapotranspiration (PET) and volumetric soil moisture (VSM). However, the transpiration of trees from the dominant and codominant layers was more sensitive to PET changes and that from the intermediate-suppressed layer was more susceptible to soil drought. This implied that in dry period, such as in drought events, the dominant and codominant trees would transpire more water, while the intermediate-suppressed trees almost stopped transpiration. These remind us that the canopy structure was the essential factor affecting single-tree and forest transpiration in the dryland areas.

A multiple-temporal scale analysis of biophysical control of sap flow in Salix psammophila growing in a semiarid shrubland ecosystem of northwest China

With increased usage of plantations in the control of desertification and water shortages in the Mu Us Desert, water use by desert-dwelling shrubs, such as Salix psammophila has become a serious topic in the management of ecologically-important plants. However, our understanding of the unevenness in water consumption across multiple timescales is still limited for many desert shrub species. Interannual variation in water consumption and its environmental controls are scarcely documented. To attend to this deficit, sap-flow measurements were continuously collected in a region of the Mu Us Desert from 2012 to 2017 to investigate the biophysical controls on sap-flow and water-consumption dynamics in S. psammophila. Diurnally, sap flow per leaf area (Js) was shown to be controlled by shortwave radiation (Rs), peaking in summer about two hours ahead of Rs, and about three to five hours ahead of air temperature (Ta) and vapor pressure deficit (VPD), respectively. Seasonal patterns in Js varied with precipitation and subsequent changes in soil volumetric water content (VWC). Soil volumetric water content was observed to modify the influence of the other environmental variables on Js (i.e., Ta, Rs, and VPD), with Js being more responsive to the site variables, when VWC > 0.09 m3 m−3, and less responsive, when <0.09 m3 m−3. Furthermore, Ta and VPD were responsible for most of the variation observed in Js during the leaf-expansion stage. Meanwhile, VWC and leaf area index (LAI) became more important during the leaf-expanded stage, and Rs during the leaf-defoliation stage. Interannually, LAI and meteoric water input to soils was responsible for most of the variation observed in Js. Reduction in Js sensitivity to biophysical factors under water-stressed conditions across temporal scales and the hysteresis effect point to species acclimatization to dry soil conditions. This study has the potential to help: (i) clarify the temporal dynamics in Js for S. psammophila across multiple timescales; and (ii) contribute to the sustainable management and control of desertification in the region under future climate change and projected increases in severe drought.

Modelling crop yield, water consumption, and water use efficiency for sustainable agroecosystem management

Agroecosystems provide food, energy, and essential services, while accounting for 80% of the world’s total water use. Producing more food with limited water resources or improving water use efficiency (WUE) is an urgent task, especially in arid and semi-arid areas with fragile ecosystems and severe water shortages. This study integrated crop type distribution, irrigation data, remote sensing imagery, and meteorological factors to simulate the crop yield, water consumption, and WUE in the Heihe River Basin of China during 2007–2012. We found that variations in water consumption had little impact on crop yield because the value far exceeded the actual water requirement. From 2007 to 2012, the water consumption of corn increased by 11.24%, while its yield decreased by 0.63%. In contrast, the water consumptions of wheat, oilseed rape, and other crops decreased by 15.45%, 10.32%, and 4.61%, while their yields increased by 2.41%, 8.91%, and 1.13%, respectively. Consequently, the WUE of corn decreased by 10.68%, while that of oilseed rape, wheat, barley, and other crops increased by 21.44%, 21.13%, 4.96%, and 6.02%, respectively. The expansion of the area planted with corn led to a 3.36% increase in the WUE of the basin. However, this agricultural development is clearly unsustainable because it increased agricultural water consumption and decreased the ecological and domestic water supply. On-demand irrigation is therefore necessary to reduce water wastage and improve WUE. This would have reduced agricultural water consumption in 2007 and 2012 by 32.58% and 30.13%, and the WUEs would have increased by 48.33% and 43.12%, respectively. Sustainable water-efficient management should comprehensively consider the economic benefits and environmental burdens in crop structure adjustment, irrigation practices, and field management. Additionally, a knowledge-exchange system among experts, resource managers, and farmers is crucial for improving WUE strategies for sustainable agroecosystem development.

Bayesian regularized NAR neural network based short-term prediction method of water consumption

With the continuous construction of urban water supply infrastructure, it is extremely urgent to change the management mode of water supply from traditional manual experience to modern and efficient means. The water consumption forecast is the premise of water supply scheduling, and its accuracy also directly affects the effectiveness of water supply scheduling. This paper analyzes the regularity of water consumption time series, establishes a short-term water consumption prediction model based on Bayesian regularized NAR neural network, and compares and evaluates the prediction effect of the model. The verification results show that the Bayesian based NAR neural network prediction model has higher adaptability to the water consumption prediction than the standard BP neural network and the Bayesian regularized BP neural network. The prediction accuracy can more accurately reflect the short-term variation of water consumption.

Daily Water Intake by Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and Recommendations Regarding Fluid Regulation.

The typical daily water intake of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) in a research setting has not been well characterized. Because these New World primates are in demand as animal models for neurobehavioral experiments, which can include the potential use of fluid regulation for training, veterinary and research staff need to understand how marmosets keep hydrated under normal circumstances. In the current study, we measured the water consumption of older (age, 5 to 12 y; n = 11) and younger (age, 1 to 2 y; n = 11) marmosets every 3 h during the 12-h light phase in 2 different months (January and July). The overall daily water intake (mean ± 1 SD) was 61.3 ± 20.4 mL/kg (range, 36.3 to 99.0 mL/kg); water intake by an individual marmoset or cohoused pair was fairly consistent from day to day. Water intake did not change across the four 3-h periods measured during the day, and minimal water was consumed overnight when the room lights were off. In addition, daily water intake did not differ between the 2 mo of measurements. Older animals drank significantly more than the younger group, and weight was directly correlated with water intake. Water intake was not affected by body condition score or housing status. The variation in water consumption among marmosets underscores the need for individualization of fluid regulation guidelines.

Temporal variations in transpiration of Vitellaria paradoxa in West African agroforestry parklands

Lack of data on water use of key species of drylands constitutes an obstacle to understanding their role in hydrological processes in this environment. To elucidate seasonal variation in water consumption by Vitellaria paradoxa, the dominant species of parklands of the semi-arid areas of West Africa, we’ve measured its transpiration using heat ratio method (HRM) and seven potential explanatory variables. Sap flux was found to be significantly different among years with 0.64, 0.59 and 0.67 L h−1 dm−2 in 2008, 2009 and 2010, respectively. Sap flux was significantly higher in the dry (0.73 L h−1 dm−2) than in the wet season (0.53 L h−1 dm−2). Nighttime sap flux during dry season (0.48 L h−1 dm−2) was significantly higher than that of the wet season (0.20 L h−1 dm−2) and it contributes on average to 26% of daily sap flow with a maximum reaching 49%. The mean transpiration rate per tree was 151 L day−1 and all measured variables except rainfall and soil water content were significantly correlated with sap flux. These correlations were stronger (higher R value) during the rainy than in the dry season. Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD) explained the highest proportion of sap flux variation and their curve was of parabolic type (R2 = 0.54) indicating that V. paradoxa can probably down-regulate its canopy conductance beyond a certain threshold of VPD, which is about 3 kPa in the present study. Future studies should investigate such hypothesis as well as the impacts of the variation of V. paradoxa transpiration due to climatic variables on hydrological cycles.

Multi-temporal variation in water consumption of summer maize as determined by the Water Transformation Dynamical Processes Experimental Device

A better understanding of the multi-temporal variation in evapotranspiration (ET) at different crop growth stages is the key for determining a reasonable irrigation schedule. In this study, a new device known as ‘Water Transformation Dynamical Processes Experimental Device’ (WTDPED) was used to monitor ET for maize under controlled environmental and groundwater conditions, and the multi-temporal variations of ET considering the combined impact of environmental factors (air temperature (AT), relative humidity (RH)) and groundwater in homogeneous and layered soils were focused on. During the whole growing period, the ET peaked at 14:00–15:00 on a daily basis. The variation in daily ET followed a bell curve during the entire growing period. The 5-day ET reached its maximum during the 12th leaf and maturity stage. The correlation coefficient between ET and AT reached its maximum value of 0.70 during planting and the third leaf stage. The negative correlation coefficient between RH and ET reached its maximum during the 12th leaf and tasseling-silking stage. Groundwater recharge was positively correlated to ET and the daily contribution was up to 10.07%. The silt sandy loam–loam layered soil was favorable for water and nutrient uptake during the entire growing period of maize.

Zmienność zużycia wody w gospodarstwach wiejskich w okresie wielolecia

Zmienność zużycia wody w gospodarstwach wiejskich w okresie wielolecia

Change-point detection and variation assessment of the hydrologic regime of the Wenyu River

ABSTRACTIn recent decades, remarkable hydrological variations resulting from climate change and human activities have significantly affected rivers globally. Thus, it is important for local water resource planning and management to examine hydrologic regime variations. The aim of this study was to determine the changes in the mean annual runoff series and hydrological characteristic parameter of the Wenyu River. In addition, climate change and human activity were discussed for looking for the most causative factors of hydrological variations of the Wenyu River. The results indicated that annual runoff series exhibited an overall decreasing trend with two significant change points in 1972 and 1984. Over time, the number of hydrological variation index increased significantly and different changes of hydrological regime were exhibited during various periods. The comparative analysis indicated that the variations in runoff were likely driven by human activity rather than climate change. Reservoir operations and changes in water consumption resulting from regional economic development in human activities markedly affected the hydrological features of the Wenyu River. To be specific, the variations in annual runoff and low flow were attributed to regional fluctuations in water demand, but the inter-annual changes and maximal and minimal flow variations after 1972 were likely due to the joint influence of reservoir regulations and variations in water consumption.

Investigating the Predictors of Domestic Water Consumption in Urban Households with Children Under-Five Years: A Panel Study in the Atwima Nwabiagya District, Ghana

This panel study investigated the effect of potential predictors on per capita domestic water consumption in the wet and dry seasons. A total of 242 urban households with children under age five were drawn from two urban communities, Abuakwa and Nkawie, in the Atwima Nwabiagya District, Ghana. Data were collected from mothers using interviewer-administered questionnaires and analyzed using correlation and stepwise multiple regression. Mean per capita daily water consumption was estimated at 38.97 and 20.70 liters in the wet (n = 140) and dry seasons (n = 235), respectively. The volume of the primary water storage vessel, number of water storage containers, and household size were the most significant predictors in the wet season, constituting 16% of the variation in water consumption. Duration of water storage, household size, number of water service hours, and volume of the primary water storage vessel emerged as the most significant predictors in the dry season, constituting 40% of the variation in water consumption. Further research that considers a wider range of socio-demographic factors, such as the gender of the household head, culture, religion and water use characteristics of each member of the household are recommended.

Spatio‐temporal distribution of actual evapotranspiration in the Indus Basin Irrigation System

AbstractStrategic planning of optimal water use requires an accurate assessment of actual evapotranspiration (ETa) to understand the environmental and hydrological processes of the world's largest contiguous irrigation networks, including the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) in Pakistan. The Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) has been used successfully for accurate estimations of ETa in different river basins throughout the world. In this study, we examined the application of SEBS using publically available remote sensing data to assess spatial variations in water consumption and to map water stress from daily to annual scales in the IBIS. Ground‐based ETa was calculated by the advection‐aridity method, from nine meteorological sites, and used to evaluate the intra‐annual seasonality in the hydrological year 2009–2010. In comparison with the advection‐aridity, SEBS computed daily ETa was slightly underestimated with a bias of −0.15 mm day−1 during the kharif (wet; April–September) season, and it was overestimated with a bias of 0.23 mm day−1 in the rabi (dry; October–March) season. Monthly values of the ETa estimated by SEBS were significantly (P &lt; 0.05) controlled by mean air temperature and rainfall, among other climatological variables (relative humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed). Because of the seasonal (kharif and rabi) differences in the water and energy budget in the huge canal command areas of the IBIS, ETa and rainfall were positively correlated in the kharif season and were negatively correlated during the rabi season. In addition, analysis of the evaporation process showed that mixed‐cropping and rice–wheat dominated areas had lower and higher water consumption rates, respectively, in comparison with other cropping systems in the basin. Basin areas under water stress were identified by means of spatial variations in the relative evapotranspiration, which had an average value of 0.59 and 0.42 during the kharif and the rabi seasons, respectively. The hydrological parameters used in this study provide useful information for understanding hydrological processes at different spatial and temporal scales. Results of this study further suggest that the SEBS is useful for evaluation of water resources in semi‐arid to arid regions over longer periods, if the data inputs are carefully handled. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Quantifying Outdoor Water Consumption of Urban Land Use/Land Cover: Sensitivity to Drought

Outdoor water use is a key component in arid city water systems for achieving sustainable water use and ensuring water security. Using evapotranspiration (ET) calculations as a proxy for outdoor water consumption, the objectives of this research are to quantify outdoor water consumption of different land use and land cover types, and compare the spatio-temporal variation in water consumption between drought and wet years. An energy balance model was applied to Landsat 5 TM time series images to estimate daily and seasonal ET for the Central Arizona Phoenix Long-Term Ecological Research region (CAP-LTER). Modeled ET estimations were correlated with water use data in 49 parks within CAP-LTER and showed good agreement (r² = 0.77), indicating model effectiveness to capture the variations across park water consumption. Seasonally, active agriculture shows high ET (>500 mm) for both wet and dry conditions, while the desert and urban land cover types experienced lower ET during drought (<300 mm). Within urban locales of CAP-LTER, xeric neighborhoods show significant differences from year to year, while mesic neighborhoods retain their ET values (400-500 mm) during drought, implying considerable use of irrigation to sustain their greenness. Considering the potentially limiting water availability of this region in the future due to large population increases and the threat of a warming and drying climate, maintaining large water-consuming, irrigated landscapes challenges sustainable practices of water conservation and the need to provide amenities of this desert area for enhancing quality of life.

Analysis of Water Consumption Changes during two Decades

Abstract Water consumption depends on the consumers’ habits, industrial companies and the nature of the activity, as well as on public users. Water consumption in Lithuania has decreased by more than three times over the past two decades. This was influenced by the changed consumers’ habits, implemented water metering and increased water prices. But it has been analyzed little, how the dynamics of water consumption has been changing. This article examines the dynamics of water consumption variation over 20 years in one of Vilnius district. Variations of water consumption are analyzed in the article and the obtained results are compared with the parameters in the legal acts. Water consumption per night was analyzed in the article also, as these values could be fast and reliable assessment of water losses in network. The analysis of night water consumption was conducted and the recommended norm of night water consumption indicated.

Determinants of water consumption in the dairy industry

This paper analyzes the correlations between selected technical, process and production factors, equipment profiles and water consumption statistics in four types of dairy plants. Dairy plants were surveyed both individually and in groups. Water consumption was most highly correlated (r &gt; 0.868) with equipment profiles. The highest water consumption was observed in dairy plants operating milk powder departments. In those plants, organization and production factors could significantly reduce water consumption levels because in addition to milk powder, those plants also supplied eight other products. The indicators of water consumption per unit of the final product were correlated (at 0.820 &gt; | r | &gt; 0.663) with equipment profiles, the degree of process automation and employment. Variations in water consumption per unit of the final product were best explained in small plants supplying several products. The presented equations can be used to optimize water demand of various types of equipment and to determine the correlations with energy consumption for wastewater treatment. Our results can contribute to the development of water consumption models in dairy plants and the implementation of clean production standards.