Variance In Test Scores Research Articles

Indoor and outdoor 10-Meter Walk Test and Timed Up and Go in patients after total hip arthroplasty: a reliability and comparative study.

The 10-Meter Walk Test (10MWT) and Timed Up and Go (TUG) are valid tools for gait performance and mobility assessment after total hip arthroplasty (THA). The study aimed to assess test-retest reliability of 10MWT and TUG in indoor and outdoor environments in patients in acute phase after THA and compare their indoor vs. outdoor performance during these tests. Thirty-five inpatients performed 10MWT and TUG in indoor and outdoor settings on the second postoperative day. An additional evaluation session was performed after 1 hour under the supervision of the same operator. Test-retest reliability was assessed using Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC: 2.1) and Minimal Detectable Change (MDC95), while paired t-tests were used to compare indoor vs. outdoor performance. Indoor (ICC: 0.94, MDC95: 0.13 m/s) and outdoor (ICC: 0.91, MDC95: 0.16 m/s) 10MWT at maximum speed and indoor (ICC: 0.92, MDC95: 2.5 s) and outdoor (ICC: 0.93, MDC95: 2.4 s) TUG revealed excellent reliability. Indoor (ICC: 0.86, MDC95: 0.16 m/s) and outdoor (ICC: 0.89, MDC95: 0.16 m/s) 10MWT at spontaneous speed revealed good reliability. Spontaneous (mean difference [MD]: 0.05 m/s, 95% confidence interval [CI95]: 0.03, 0.07, p < 0.001) and maximum (MD: 0.02 m/s, CI95: 0.01, 0.04, p < 0.001) 10MWT revealed higher gait speed when performed outdoors compared to indoors. Indoor and outdoor 10MWT and TUG are reliable tests in acute phase after THA. Higher gait speed during outdoor 10MWT may depend on test score variability, due to MDs being lower than MDC95.

The Moderating Influence of School Achievement on Intelligence: A Cross-National Comparison.

Education-related variables are positively associated with intelligence in both causal directions, but little is known about the associations' underlying genetically and environmentally intertwined processes and many 'third variables' are probably involved too. In this study, we investigated how school achievement, measured by grade point average (GPA), moderated intelligence test score variation in young adulthood in broadly representative samples from the U.S. state of Minnesota, Denmark, and Germany, attempting to improve both understanding of the importance of environmental contexts and the limitations of currently available modelling techniques to help remedy them. School achievement was positively associated with intelligence test scores in all three contexts, but it moderated variances differently, even within the two cohorts comprising the Minnesota sample. One Minnesota cohort and the German sample suggested that shared environmental variance was larger among individuals with extreme GPAs, while the Danish sample suggested that this was only true among individuals with low GPAs. In contrast to these observations, the other Minnesota cohort suggested that genetic and non-shared environmental variances were greater among individuals with high GPAs. These observations indicated that underlying individual developmental processes and population-level impacts differed. However, our statistical models did not capture these differences clearly. The ways in which they failed all suggested the model limitations involve an inability to address degrees to which environmental constraints restrain social movements that are confounded with individual variations in capacities to move within society.

Taking another look at intelligence and personality using an eye-tracking approach

Intelligence and personality are both key drivers of learning. This study extends prior research on intelligence and personality by adopting a behavioral-process-related eye-tracking approach. We tested 182 adults on fluid intelligence and the Big Five personality traits. Eye-tracking information (gaze patterns) was recorded while participants completed the intelligence test. Machine learning models showed that personality explained 3.18% of the variance in intelligence test scores, with Openness and, surprisingly, Agreeableness most meaningfully contributing to the prediction. Facet-level measures of personality explained a larger amount of variance (7.67%) in intelligence test scores than the trait-level measures, with the largest coefficients obtained for Ideas and Values (Openness) and Compliance and Trust (Agreeableness). Gaze patterns explained a substantial amount of variance in intelligence test performance (35.91%). Gaze patterns were unrelated to the Big Five personality traits, but some of the facets (especially Self-Consciousness from Neuroticism and Assertiveness from Extraversion) were related to gaze. Gaze patterns reflected the test-solving strategies described in the literature (constructive matching, response elimination) to some extent. A combined feature vector consisting of gaze-based predictions and personality traits explained 37.50% of the variance in intelligence test performance, with significant unique contributions from both personality and gaze patterns. A model that included personality facets and gaze explained 38.02% of the variance in intelligence test performance. Although behavioral data thus clearly outperformed “traditional” psychological measures (Big Five personality) in predicting intelligence test performance, our results also underscore the independent contributions of personality and gaze patterns in predicting intelligence test performance.

Teacher value-added and the test score gender gap

This paper assesses the effect of teachers on the gender gap in student test scores. It combines different empirical strategies from the value-added and labor economics literature to estimate teacher value-added and its contribution to the math and reading gender gaps. We use rich administrative data from Chile that allow us to follow teachers through different classes in different years. Our main findings indicate that teachers explain up to 18% of student test score variance and help reduce the gender gap in math by 16.9%. The reduction in the math gender gap is greater in voucher schools (16.1%), among students with more educated mothers (24%) and among those with female math teachers (32.2%). We provide evidence supporting a within-class effect, instead of sorting (between-class) effect. We conduct several tests and robustness checks to assess the reliability of our findings.

Eye movement function captured via an electronic tablet informs on cognition and disease severity in Parkinson’s disease

Studying the oculomotor system provides a unique window to assess brain health and function in various clinical populations. Although the use of detailed oculomotor parameters in clinical research has been limited due to the scalability of the required equipment, the development of novel tablet-based technologies has created opportunities for fast, easy, cost-effective, and reliable eye tracking. Oculomotor measures captured via a mobile tablet-based technology have previously been shown to reliably discriminate between Parkinson’s Disease (PD) patients and healthy controls. Here we further investigate the use of oculomotor measures from tablet-based eye-tracking to inform on various cognitive abilities and disease severity in PD patients. When combined using partial least square regression, the extracted oculomotor parameters can explain up to 71% of the variance in cognitive test scores (e.g. Trail Making Test). Moreover, using a receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis we show that eye-tracking parameters can be used in a support vector classifier to discriminate between individuals with mild PD from those with moderate PD (based on UPDRS cut-off scores) with an accuracy of 90%. Taken together, our findings highlight the potential usefulness of mobile tablet-based technology to rapidly scale eye-tracking use and usefulness in both research and clinical settings by informing on disease stage and cognitive outcomes.

Validation of the Italian version of a patient-reported outcome measure for Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia.

Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) are recognized as valuable measures in the clinical setting. In 2018 we developed the Italian version of the "Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia-Self Notion and Perception Questionnaire" (HSP-SNAP), a disease-specific questionnaire that collects personal perception on motor symptoms related to HSP such as stiffness, weakness, imbalance, reduced endurance, fatigue and pain. In this study our primary aim was to assess the questionnaire validity and reliability. Our secondary aim was to characterize the symptoms "perceived" by patients with HSP and compare them with those "perceived" by age-matched healthy subjects. The 12-item HSP-SNAP questionnaire was submitted to 20 external judges for comprehensibility and to 15 external judges for content validity assessment. We recruited 40 subjects with HSP and asked them to fill the questionnaire twice for test-retest procedure. They also completed the Medical Outcome Survey Short Form (SF-36) and were evaluated by the Spastic Paraplegia Rating Scale and the Six-Minute Walk Test. We also recruited 44 healthy subjects who completed the HSP-SNAP once to test score variability. The HSP-SNAP content validity index was high (0.8±0.1) and the test-retest analysis showed high reliability (ICC = 0.94). The mean HSP-SNAP score (score range 0-48) of the HSP group was 22.2±7.8, which was significantly lower than healthy subjects (43.1±6.3). The most commonly perceived symptom was stiffness, followed by weakness and imbalance. Although HSP-SNAP does not investigate non-motor symptoms and we validated only its Italian version, it showed good validity and reliability and it could be used in combination with other objective outcome measures for clinical purposes or as endpoints for future clinical rehabilitation studies. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrial.gov, NCT04256681. Registered 3 February 2020.

Development and validation of an objective virtual reality tool for assessing technical aptitude among potential candidates for surgical training

BackgroundGood technical skills are crucial for surgeons. Yet although surgical training programs strive to assess technical aptitude when selecting surgical residents, valid assessments of such aptitude are still lacking. Surgical simulators have been proposed as a potentially effective tool for this purpose. The current study aims to develop a technical aptitude test using a virtual reality surgical simulator, and to validate its use for the selection of surgical residents.MethodsThe study had three phases. In Phase 1, we developed an initial version of the technical aptitude test using the Lap-X-VR laparoscopic simulator. In Phases 2 and 3 we refined the test and collected empirical data to evaluate four main sources of validity evidence (content, response process, internal structure, and relationships with other variables), and to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of the test. Specifically, Phase 2 comprised a review of the test by 30 senior surgeons, and in Phase 3 a revised version of the test was administered to 152 interns to determine its psychometric properties.ResultsBoth the surgeons and interns rated the test as highly relevant for selecting surgical residents. Analyses of the data obtained from the trial administration of the test supported the appropriateness of the score calculation process and showed good psychometric properties, including reliability (α = 0.83) and task discrimination (mean discrimination = 0.5, SD = 0.1). The correlations between test scores and background variables revealed significant correlations with gender, surgical simulator experience, and video game experience (ps < 0.001). These variables, however, explained together only 10% of the variance in test scores.ConclusionsWe describe the systematic development of an innovative virtual reality test for assessing technical aptitude in candidates for surgical training, and present evidence for its validity, feasibility and acceptability. Further validation is required to support the application of the test for selection, as well as to discern the impact of gender, surgical simulator experience, and video game experience on the fairness of test results. However, the test appears to be a promising tool that may help training programs assess the suitability of candidates for surgical training.

An Investigation of the Cross-Language Transfer of Reading Skills: Evidence from a Study in Nigerian Government Primary Schools

This paper investigates the linguistic interdependence of Grade 3 children studying in government primary schools in northern Nigeria who are learning to read in Hausa (L1) and English (L2) simultaneously. There are few studies in the African context that consider linguistic interdependence and the bidirectional influences of literacy skills in multilingual contexts. A total of 2328 Grade 3 children were tested on their Hausa and English letter sound knowledge (phonemes) and reading decoding skills (word) after participating in a two-year English structured reading intervention programme as part of their school day. In Grade 4, these children will become English immersion learners, with English becoming the medium of instruction. Carrying out bivariate correlations, we find a large and strongly positively significant correlation between L1 and L2 test scores. Concerning bidirectionality, a feedback path model illustrates that the L1 word score predicts the L2 word score and vice versa. Multi-level modelling is then used to consider the variation in test scores. Almost two thirds of the variation in the word score is attributable to the pupil level and one third to the school level. The Hausa word score is significantly predicted through Hausa sound and English word score. English word score is significantly predicted through Hausa word and English sound score. The findings have implications for language policy and classroom instruction, showing the importance of cross-language transfer between reading skills. The overall results support bidirectionality and linguistic interdependence.

Biological maturity vs. relative age: Independent impact on physical performance in male and female youth handball players.

Maturity status and relative age are two of the determining factors in talent development. The aim of the study was to analyze the influence of biological maturity status and relative age on physical performance in young male and female handball players. The sample included 48 males (14.11 ± 1.17 years) and 41 females (14.25 ± 1.64 years) players from one Spanish professional handball academy. Anthropometric data (height, sitting height, body mass and self-reported biological parent heights) and physical performance data (CMJ, DJ, 20 m speed, T-test and throwing velocity) were collected. Biological maturity status was determined as the percentage of predicted adult height, while relative age was estimated in birth quartiles based on biennial age grouping (Q1-Q8). The results showed a positive correlation between maturity status and CMJ in male players (p < 0.01). Differences in CMJ performance according to maturity status were identified (p < 0.05), with higher jump heights being recorded especially in early maturing boys (p < 0.01) and first lines and wings (p < 0.05). The variance in CMJ test scores could be explained by the maturity status by 42.90% in U-15 (p < 0.05) and 72.60% in U-16 male players (p < 0.001). By contrast, no differences were found in girls (p > 0.05). Moreover, no relationships were found between relative age and indices of physical performance (p > 0.05). Overall, maturity status had greater impacts on the tests of physical performance than relative age. Stakeholders should monitor the maturity status of young handball players to avoid physical performance biases that do not allow them to develop their sporting potential.

A dialectic on validity: Explanation-focused and the many ways of being human

In line with the journal volume’s theme, this essay considers lessons from the past and visions for the future of test validity. In the first part of the essay, a description of historical trends in test validity since the early 1900s leads to the natural question of whether the discipline has progressed in its definition and description of test validity. There is no single agreed-upon definition of test validity; however, there is a marked coalescing of explanation-centered views at the meta-level. The second part of the essay focuses on the author's development of an explanation-focused view of validity theory with aligned validation methods. The confluence of ideas that motivated and influenced the development of a coherent view of test validity as the explanation for the test score variation and validation is the process of developing and testing the explanation guided by abductive methods and inference to the best explanation. This description also includes a new re-interpretation of true scores in classical test theory afforded by the author’s measure-theoretic mental test theory development—for a particular test-taker, the variation in observed test-taker scores includes measurement error and variation attributable to the different ecological testing settings, which aligns with the explanation-focused view wherein item and test performance are the object of explanatory analyses. The final main section of the essay describes several methodological innovations in explanation-focused validity that are in response to the tensions and changes in assessment in the last 25 years.

Process models of verbal memory in cancer survivors: Bayesian process modeling approach to variation in test scores

ABSTRACT Introduction Verbal memory is a complex and fundamental aspect of human cognition. However, traditional sum-score analyses of verbal learning tests oversimplify underlying verbal memory processes. We propose using process models to subdivide memory into multiple processes, which helps in localizing the most affected processes in impaired verbal memory. Additionally, the model can be used to address score and process variability. This study aims to investigate the effects of cancer and its treatment on verbal memory, as well as provide a demonstration of how process models can be used to investigate the uncertainty in neuropsychological test scores. Method We present an investigation of memory process scores in non-CNS cancer survivors (n = 184) and no-cancer controls (n = 204). The participants completed the Amsterdam Cognition Scan (ACS), in which classical neuropsychological tests are digitally recreated for online at-home administration. We analyzed data from the ACS equivalent of a Verbal Learning Test using both traditional sum scores and a Bayesian process model. Results Analysis of the sum score indicated that patients scored lower than controls on immediate recall but found no difference for delayed recall. The process model analysis indicated a small difference between patients and controls in immediate retrieval from both the partially learned and learned states, with no differences in learning or delayed retrieval processes. Individual-level analysis shows considerable uncertainty for sum scores. Sum scores were more certain than single trials. Retrieval parameters also showed less uncertainty than learning parameters. Conclusion The Bayesian process model increased the informativity of Verbal Learning test data, by showing uncertainty of the traditional sum score measurements as well as how the underlying processes differed between populations. Additionally, the model grants insight into underlying memory processes for individuals and how these processes vary within and between them.

The copenhagen cross-linguistic naming test (C-CLNT): Development and validation in a multicultural memory clinic population.

Despite recent advances in cross-cultural neuropsychological test development, suitable tests for cross-linguistic assessment of language functions are not widely available. The aims of this study were to develop and validate a brief naming test, the Copenhagen Cross-Linguistic Naming Test (C-CLNT), for the assessment of culturally, linguistically, and educationally diverse older adult populations in Europe. The C-CLNT was based on a set of standardized color drawings. Items for the C-CLNT were selected by considering name agreement and frequency across five European and two non-European languages. Ambiguities in some of the selected items and scoring criteria were resolved after pilot testing in 10 memory clinic patients. The final 30-item C-CLNT was validated by verifying its psychometric properties in 24 controls and 162 diverse memory clinic patients with affective disorder, mild cognitive impairment, and with dementia. The C-CLNT had acceptable scale reliability (coefficient alpha = .67) and good construct validity, with moderate to strong correlations with traditional language tests (r = .42- .75). Diagnostic accuracy for dementia was good and significantly better than that of the Boston Naming Test (areas under the curve of .80 vs .64, p < .001), but was poor for mild cognitive impairment. Only 3% of the variance in C-CLNT test scores was explained by immigrant background, while 6% was explained by age and years of education. In comparison, these proportions were 34 and 22% for the BNT. The C-CLNT has promising clinical utility for cross-linguistic assessment of naming impairment in culturally, linguistically, and educationally diverse older adults.

Abstract 14425: Independent Predictors of ECG Interpretation Proficiency in Healthcare Professionals

Background: Accurate ECG interpretation is vital, but variations in skills exist among healthcare professionals. This study aims to identify factors contributing to ECG interpretation proficiency. Methods: Survey data and ECG test scores from participants in the EDUCATE Trial were analyzed. The dependent variable was the test score for interpreting 30 12-lead ECGs. Independent variables included non-modifiable factors (physician status, clinical experience, patient care impact) and modifiable factors (weekly interpretations, training hours, expert supervision frequency). Bivariate and multivariate analyses generated the Comprehensive Model (all factors) and Actionable Model (modifiable factors only). Results: Among 1206 participants, there were 72 (6.0%) primary care physicians, 146 (12.1%) cardiology fellows-in-training, 353 (29.3%) resident physicians, 182 (15.1%) medical students, 84 (7.0%) advanced practice providers, 120 (9.9%) nurses, and 249 (20.7%) allied health professionals. Physicians accounted for 571 (47.3%) of participants, while 453 (37.6%) were non-physicians. Bivariate analysis showed associations between test scores and multiple variables (Table 1) . In the Comprehensive Model, scores were independently associated with weekly interpretations (9.9 score increase; 95% CI 7.9-11.8; P&lt;0.001), physician status (9.0 score increase; 95% CI 7.2-10.8; P&lt;0.001), and training hours (5.7 score increase; 95% CI 3.7-7.6; P&lt;0.001). In the Actionable Model, scores were independently associated with weekly interpretations (12.0 score increase; 95% CI, 10.0-14.0; P&lt;0.001) and training hours (4.7 score increase; 95% CI 2.6-6.7; P&lt;0.001). The Comprehensive and Actionable Models accounted for 18.7% and 12.3% of the variance in test scores, respectively. Conclusions: Being a physician is a non-modifiable predictor, while training and regular practice are modifiable predictors of ECG interpretation performance.

Latent Regression Analysis Considering Student, Teacher, and Parent Variables and Their Relationship with Academic Performance in Primary School Students in Chile.

Academic performance in primary students is fundamental to future school success; however, simultaneous analysis of different key individual, family, and teaching factors must be considered to improve understanding and benefit the development of students' potential. This article presents a latent regression analysis model that examines the relationship between the latent variables (self-efficacy, interest in reading, bullying, parental expectations, and discrimination/exclusion, and teacher violence/aggression) and the academic performance of first-cycle primary students. The model investigates the impact of the latent variables on the standardized endogenous variables of SIMCE Mathematics and Language test scores using a quantitative, non-experimental, correlational, and cross-sectional design. The study involved 70,778 students (53.4% female), with an average age of 9.5 years (SD = 0.6), from Chilean public (33.6%) and subsidized (66.4%) schools. The results indicate that the model accounted for 49.8% and 47.7% of the mean variability in SIMCE Mathematics and Language test scores, respectively. The goodness-of-fit indices demonstrated satisfactory fits for both models. In both tests, student self-efficacy emerged as the most significant factor explaining test score variability, followed by parental expectations. Bullying was identified as a relevant factor in reducing mean performance on both tests. The findings suggest that education decision makers should address these issues to improve student outcomes.

Standalone Performance Validity Tests May Be Differentially Related to Measures of Working Memory, Processing Speed, and Verbal Memory in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis.

Cognitive functioning may account for minimal levels (i.e., 5%-14%) of variance of performance validity test (PVT) scores in clinical examinees. The present study extended this research twofold: (a) by determining the variance cognitive functioning explains within three distinct PVTs (b) in a sample of patients with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). Seventy-five pwMS (Mage = 48.50, 70.6% female, 80.9% White) completed the Victoria Symptom Validity Test (VSVT), Word Choice Test (WCT), Dot Counting Test (DCT), and three objective measures of working memory, processing speed, and verbal memory as part of clinical neuropsychological assessment. Regression analyses in credible groups (ns ranged from 54 to 63) indicated that cognitive functioning explained 24% to 38% of the variance in logarithmically transformed PVT variables. Variance from cognitive testing differed across PVTs: verbal memory significantly influenced both VSVT and WCT scores; working memory influenced VSVT and DCT scores; and processing speed influenced DCT scores. The WCT appeared least related to cognitive functioning of the included PVTs. Alternative plausible explanations, including the apparent domain/modality specificity hypothesis of PVTs versus the potential sensitivity of these PVTs to neurocognitive dysfunction in pwMS were discussed. Continued psychometric investigations into factors affecting performance validity, especially in multiple sclerosis, are warranted.

The role of student effort on performance in PISA: revisiting the gender gap in achievement

Abstract International assessments are important to benchmark the quality of education internationally. However, ignoring students’ efforts in low-stakes tests can lead to biased interpretations of test performance. We use data from the PISA to analyse the potential role of student effort in explaining gender achievement gaps across countries. We build two effort measures based on students’ response times to test questions (i.e. rapid-guessing rates) and the student effort on the post-test survey (i.e. item non-response rates). We find a strong association between student efforts and test scores. After accounting for differences in effort, the estimated gender achievement gap in mathematics and science could be up to 36% and 40% of an standard deviation wider, respectively, in favour of boys. Altogether, our effort measures on average explain between 51% and 56% of the cross-country variation in test scores.

The Relative Strengths of Relationships Between Fine Motor Skills, Working Memory, Processing Speed and Fluid Intelligence in Early Elementary School Children.

The goal in the present paper was to examine the combined and relative impact of fine motor ability, auditory working memory, and processing speed on fluid intelligence in a sample of early elementary school students. Our participant sample was 145 children (Mage = 9.1years, SD = 1.1; 80 boys, 65 girls). We used the Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices Test as a measure of fluid intelligence and five other measures to represent the three predictor variables: the Grooved Pegboard Test as a measure of fine motor skills, Digit Span Forwards and Digit Span Backwards tests as measures of working memory, and Rapid Automatized Naming and Letter-Digit Substitution tasks as measures of processing speed. Regression analyses indicated that only two of these measures had a statistically significant association with the fluid intelligence test scores, namely, scores on the Grooved Pegboard (fine motor skills) and Digit Span Backwards (working memory) tests, with these two measures explaining 35% of the variance in the fluid intelligence test scores. Thus, fine motor skills and working memory were correlated with fluid intelligence in early elementary-grade students. Until the directions of these relationships are better understood, we might assume that interventions aiming to increase young children's fluid intelligence, or at least their intelligence scores, might partly target working memory and fine motor skills.

Test results with and without blueprinting: Psychometric analysis using the Rasch model

IntroductionThe test blueprint bridges the teaching, learning, and assessment processes. It describes what to measure in which learning domain and at what competency level. We used Rasch analysis to compare the test results and item response patterns of two uro-reproductive tests. The Fall-2020 (Test one) exam was developed without a test blueprint, while the Fall-2021 (Test two) exam used a test blueprint. MethodsThe study analyzed data from 143 Sultan Qaboos University medical students who passed the course in fall 2020 and fall 2021. 25 MCQs were chosen at random. Psychometric analysis was performed using the Rasch model. Means, measurement errors, and reliability indices were calculated. Rasch's dichotomous model computed PCAR for unidimensionality, local item independence, person separation estimate, and fit statistics for item conformity. ResultsBoth tests exhibited non-significant variations in test scores, person separation indices (PSI), and item reliability. On test two, item separation measures showed three difficulty levels. Unidimensionality assumptions were validated in both tests. Test one items 16 and 18 were 0.53 intercorrelated, indicating response dependence. Both tests produced acceptable infit statistics, with 8 items in test one and 6 in test two unfitting for the outfit range (0.7--1.3). Test two ICC had a wider range of item difficulty. The item-person map showed that students' abilities are greater than item difficulties in both tests, with a wider range of abilities in test two. ConclusionsPsychometrically sound tests require test blueprints. The Rasch model analyzes test psychometrics effectively. Test score accuracy, item differentiation, and item independence improved with blueprinting. Creating a test with a high correlation between item difficulty and student ability reduced score measuring errors. General research should examine blueprinting methods and educational milestones.

The Greek Australian neuropsychological normative study: tests & norms for Greek Australians aged 70-85 years

ABSTRACT Objective Access to valid and reliable neuropsychological measures for use with culturally diverse groups in Australia is limited. The aim of this study was to adapt and translate a selection of English language neuropsychological tests, employ several existing standardised Greek language tests, and provide specific reference group normative data for Greek Australian older adults. Method A convenience sample of 90 healthy older Greek Australians (M = 77.14 ± 4.46; range = 70–85), with a primary school level of education (M = 5.60 ± 0.68; Range = 4–6), was recruited throughout the Melbourne metropolitan area. Several neuropsychological measures were administered which assessed domains such as verbal and visual memory, confrontational naming, and executive functions. Results Regression modelling revealed that age, education and sex predicted between 5% and 35% of the variance of test scores, with age being the most significant predictor of performance across a majority of measures. Therefore, the normative data for all tests were stratified according to three age bands (70–74, 75–79, 80–85). Conclusions The use of culture-specific tests and norms for assessment of older Greek-Australians with limited education may facilitate accuracy of assessment findings, improve diagnostic outcomes, and reduce misclassification.

Revised Hammersmith Scale for spinal muscular atrophy: Inter and intra-rater reliability and agreement.

The Revised Hammersmith Scale (RHS) for Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) was designed as a psychometrically robust clinical outcome assessment to assess physical abilities of patients with type 2 and 3 SMA. The reliability properties of the RHS have not yet been reported. A prospective RHS reliability study was undertaken in a UK cohort of experienced neuromuscular paediatric Physiotherapists. Reliability testing was conducted via a virtual survey platform two weeks apart. Through the virtual platform participants scored videos of two RHS assessments, one of a child with SMA 2 and one of a child with SMA 3. Inter and intra-rater reliability was analysed using a type 3 Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). Intra-rater agreement was further analysed using Bland Altman (BA) Limits of Agreement (LOA) and plots. The acceptable inter and intra-rater variability was set as a change of ± 2 by the international team of expert physiotherapists who developed the RHS. Inter-rater agreement, n = 22 raters, type 3 ICC was 0.989 (95% CI 0.944 to 1.00), 97.7% of scores were within the acceptable limits of ± 2 points. Intra-rater agreement, n = 21 raters, type 3 ICC ranged from 0.922 to 1.0, with 97.6% of scores within the acceptable limits of ± 2 points. The mean SMA 2 intra-rater difference was -0.10 (-0.6 to 0.4), with lower LOA -2.24 and upper LOA +2.04. Intra-rater difference between tests for SMA 3 intra-rater difference was -0.05 (-0.6 to 0.5), with lower LOA -2.48 and upper LOA +2.38. Intra-rater scoring precision fell within BA agreement limits of ±2 points. The results demonstrate that the RHS is highly reliable when used by experienced UK physiotherapists, and variability of test scores regarding inter and intra-rater reliability was confirmed to lie within ±2 points.