Variation In Food Habits Research Articles

The Therapeutic Potential of Nutraceuticals in Modulating the Development of Skin Cancer

The integumentary system, including the skin, is essential to the human body. It acts as a crucial defensive mechanism against many environmental conditions, particularly prolonged exposure to sunlight that contains harmful ultraviolet radiation. Exposure to this factor initiates a series of events that ultimately damage the genetic material in skin cells, leading to unregulated cell proliferation and the subsequent formation of skin malignancies. The UV spectrum consists of two main categories, UVA and UVB, each having different effects on the skin environment. They cause cellular stress and directly damage DNA. A growing academic discussion focuses on understanding the effects of different diets on skin health, specifically comparing the western diet, which includes a lot of processed food, with the asian diet, encompasing natural and plant-based remedies. This variation in food habits has been suggested as a factor that affects the skin's general health. "Nutraceuticals" refers to substances derived from many sources that function as a powerful preventive barrier against developing and advancing skin tumors. Intentionally including nutraceuticals in one's diet, which entails precise enrichment with minerals, vitamins, and vital fatty acids, can improve skin conditions and strengthen the skin's resistance to cancer-causing propensities. This comprehensive review aims to clarify the complex relationship between skin cancers and the preventive potential of nutraceutical therapies, highlighting their beneficial effect in preventing the development of malignancies. The understanding gained from this research highlights the crucial importance of nutraceuticals and certain bioactive chemicals obtained from nature in promoting healthy skin and reducing the likelihood of developing malignant changes.

Lose Your Belly, Feed Your Brain: A Correlational Study on Food Habits and Academic Achievements of Secondary Level Students

Purpose The purpose of this study was to find out the nature of the association between Food Habits and Academic Achievements of Secondary level students from the Baranagar Municipality in the state of West Bengal, India. Method The investigators used a correlational method for this study. A cross-sectional survey of a sample of 404 Secondary level students was done. Different types of statistical techniques (like- t-tests, ANOVA, Pearson's correlation, and Simple Linear Regression analysis) were subsequently used for necessary inferences from the data analyses. Results At 0.05 level of significance, a statistically significant difference was found between male and female Secondary levels students’ food habits while no statistically significant difference was found between the groups’ academic achievements. But, statistically significant differences were found among the male and female students with respect to the sub-categories of their food habits and also with respect to the sub-categories of their academic achievements. However, an overall highly positive association between food habits and the academic achievements of those Secondary level students was found where the values of the Pearson’s correlation had been 0.792 and R2 had been 0.63. Hence, from this study, it has also been found that a variation in Food Habits of the Secondary level students as an independent variable can explain collectively about 63% of variations in Academic Achievements of the same group of students as a dependent variable. Conclusion Food is human’s one of the basic need. It is one of the most important factors for students’ Academic Achievement also at the Secondary level as at this stage, adolescent students grow and develop rapidly. For everyone, food-taking is important but overmuch food-taking is also a cause for poor academic achievements.

Seasonal variation in the diet of sloth bears in Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India

We studied seasonal variation in food habits of sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) in the human-dominated buffer zone of the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India, during 2017 and 2018. We analyzed 109 sloth bear scats from summer and 103 from winter to characterize the seasonal variation in food habits. We used the Index of Relative Importance (IRI) to determine the importance of each food item. Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) fruits had the highest IRI score in summer and termites had the highest IRI score in winter. There was a distinct seasonal variation in the food habits of the sloth bears (χ2 = 143.3, 10 df, P < 0.01). Insects (termites and ants) were the most important food source for sloth bears, contributing 41% and 95% of the Estimated Dietary Energy Content (EDEC) during summer and winter, respectively. We found that sloth bears fed primarily on the fruits of 6 plant species in summer, including the fruits of the invasive weed, Lantana camara. Fruits of amaltas (Cassia fistula) and char (Buchanania cochinchinensis) were consumed in a lower proportion than available, whereas the fruits of tendu were consumed in proportion to availability. Sloth bears had not consumed any large vertebrate species. The food items stabilization curve showed that 70 scats in summer, and 80 scats in winter, were required to depict the diet of sloth bear adequately. Consumption of L. camara by sloth bears, as well as other wildlife species, has strong management implications in terms of seed dispersal and the spreading of this invasive weed.

Techno-functional characterization of indigenous Lactobacillus isolates from the traditional fermented foods of Meghalaya, India

The rural tribal people of Meghalaya depend mostly on their ethnic fermented foods as a part of their regular diet and these fermented foods are considered to be a hub of healthy microorganisms. However, the efficacy of probiotic microorganisms is considered to be population-specific because of gut microflora variation in food habits and specific host-microbial interactions. Hence, a strong need for exploring novel indigenous microorganisms with rich probiotic potentiality is required. A few indigenous Lactobacillus isolates (from traditional fermented foods of Meghalaya) were studied extensively for its technological and probiotic attributes. The isolates could survive at pH 2–3 (L. fermentum K16 showed high cell count: pH 2–5.12 log CFU/ml; pH 3–5.76 log CFU/ml), against bile salts (L. fermentum K7 showed high cell count-5.36 log CFU/ml), gastric juices (pepsin and trypsin), and intestinal juice (pancreatin). The isolates showed α-galactosidase activity from 0.104-0.412 μM/ml and β-glucosidase activity ranging from 0.122-0.409 μM/ml. Exopolysaccharide production was in between 410 and 950 mg/L. Cell surface hydrophobicity was 71.57% (L. rhamnosus K4E) and auto-aggregation was 83% (L. fermentum K16) during the study. Highest proteolytic activity (0.671 nm) and cholesterol assimilation (52.57%) was exhibited by L. fermentum K16. The isolates showed high free radical scavenging activity by ABTS method up to 80.78% by isolate L. fermentum K7. Antibacterial activity and co-aggregation efficacy was also tested against B. cereus, E. faecalis, S. dysenteriae, S. aureus, E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. typhi. These indigenous Lactobacillus isolates with high probiotic potentials could be exploited in the development of the traditional fermented foods of Meghalaya.

Food habits of invertebrate grazers in a forested stream: variations according to taxonomic affiliation, flow habitat, and body size

Macroinvertebrate grazers mainly feed on periphyton comprising of algae and detritus in streams, and sometimes feed on plant detritus or other invertebrates. We determined food habits of 21 grazer species (19 mayflies, 1 caddisfly, and 1 net-winged midge) from their gut contents, and systematically examined whether taxonomic affiliation, flow habitat, or body size are responsible for variations in food habits among or within the grazer species on a forested stream. We obtained some evidence that the food habits of grazer species varied according to family or genus; for example, species of Ephemerellidae ingested more animal materials. Species inhabiting slow-flow areas in riffles ingested fewer diatoms, while those inhabiting rapid-flow areas in riffles ingested less plant detritus. Larger individuals ingested more plant detritus or animal materials within a particular species (five grazer species), whereas we did not find the opposite patterns. Understanding the trophic roles of stream macroinvertebrates and the energy flow in stream food webs requires systematic exploration of the factors responsible for inter- and intraspecific variation.

Preclinical safety of ginsenoside compound K: Acute, and 26-week oral toxicity studies in mice and rats

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a hydrolysate of ginsenosides in the soil bacteria. This study evaluated the toxicity of CK as acute and the 26-week repeated-dose. The results of acute toxicity show that CK administered orally to rats and mice did not cause mortality or toxicity at the maximum dosage of 8 g/kg and 10 g/kg, respectively. In the toxicity study for 26-week, rats were administered with CK at doses of 13, 40, or 120 mg/kg, and were observed for 26 weeks and recovery periods of four weeks. Under the conditions, asthenia, hypoactivity, loss of fur and body weight reduction were transiently noticed in males of 120 mg/kg group. Hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity also were evident including the elevation of liver and kidney relative weight, along with focal liver necrosis as well as the increase in plasma enzymes (ALT and ALP) in male rats receiving CK (120 mg/kg), but this toxicity might be reversible. For 13 and 40 mg/kg CK groups, there was no significant variation in food habits, clinical signs, urine analysis, body weight, biochemical and hematological values, organ coefficient and histopathology examination. The NOAEL for male and female rats were observed to be 40 and 120 mg/kg, respectively.

Antibiotics Associated Disorders and Post-biotics Induced Rescue in Gut Health.

The gut microbiota plays significant roles in the human body during all spheres' of life and influences innate immunity, promotes granulocyte signaling and provides resistance during pathogenic colonization of the gut; crucial for a healthy life. Antibiotics directly affect the gut microbiota that consequently alters the basic biological processes and imposes severe consequences in population falling under different age groups. In this article, we assessed the differences in microbial colonization and immune function of the intestinal tract in infants, adults, and the aged people and also examined the recent reports describing the impacts of antibiotics on infant microbiome assembly and functioning. The age old techniques have been compared to modern ones in relation to the functioning of the gut microbiome to draw inferences on significant impacts of various microbiota on human life starting from the womb, through infancy, adulthood and old age. It was observed that data is limited to different classes or origin of populace depicting variations in food habits and/or suffering from heavy metal associated diseases after continuous exposure to heavy metals/ metalloids/ biocides. Such extreme environmental factors significantly modulate the microbiota and assist in creating a 'co-resistant' gene pool that influences gut health. In the light of this finding, it is important to analyze the 'co-resistant' gene pool existing in gut-microbiome which supports to recoup and establish a healthy life. The hypothesis of 'postbiotics' is under process and their associations with antibiotic turn to be new-insight in antibiotic therapy. On one hand, postbiotics provide a great opportunity to understand the mechanism of action against pathobionts; on the other; they lead to postulation of newer pharmabiotic products and pharmacological strategies for better gut health.

Seasonal variation in food habits of the Italian hare in a south Apennine semi-natural landscape

The Italian hare is a species of hare endemic to central and southern Italy and to Sicily. It has been classified as a ‘vulnerable’ species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as it is considered to have a high risk of extinction in the next decade. Despite its endangered status, little is known about its feeding habits. In the present study, the seasonal pattern of diet composition of a population of Italian hare occupying a semi-natural landscape was estimated by using the micro-histological technique of faecal analysis. The results showed that hares had a diversified diet, consuming plant parts from over 70 species. Like other Lepus sp., the Italian hare consumed a large amount of herbaceous plants (e.g. Brachypodium sylvaticum, Trifolium pratense, Allium subhirsutum and Festuca arundinacea), although it complemented its diet seasonally with fruits of Prunus spinosa, Pyrus piraster and Malus sylvestris. Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) evidenced significant differences among seasons, as a consequence of the seasonal occurrence of the various food items. Spring and autumn (R = 0.7482, P = 0.001), as well as spring and winter (R = 0.7398, P = 0.001), showed low diet similarities; these results were supported by similarity percentage analysis (SIMPER, average dissimilarity: > 71% between spring and autumn; > 69% between spring and winter) with taxa like P. spinosa, Cirsium strictus, T. pratense and Rosa canina making the greatest contributions to these differences. Higher similarities were instead found when comparing other seasons. This seasonal pattern of diet composition was clearly depicted in the graph from nonmetric multidimensional scaling (n-MDS) ordination. Our results highlight the importance of some plant taxa in the diet of the Italian hare and could be useful in managing reintroduction programs.

Dietary variation of the stone marten (Martes foina): A meta-analysis approach

Goal: Understanding the biogeographical trophic patterns of generalist predators, such as the Stone Marten (Martes foina), is particularly challenging due to their wide distributions and the broad trophic spectrum. The geographical variation in food habits of the Stone Marten was reviewed. Method: We collected data from 43 studies, from the available literature on food studies from locations which covered most of the Stone Marten’s European range. We explored if there is a pattern in dietary composition of the species, related to geographical range. The original data were expressed as weight, percentage of numerical abundance (%N) and frequency of occurrence of the food items measured in stomachs and scats, in North and Central Greece, and we compared them using meta-analysis. Results – Conclusions: We observed a clear latitudinal differentiation and heterogeneity in the main food categories (mammals, birds-eggs, insects, vegetation-fruits and reptiles-amphibians). Consequently, we concluded that variations in feeding habits of Stone Marten could be associated to local climate and, therefore, the availability of alternative potential food. In a general geographical scale, Stone Marten respond to varying food availability by adjusting its foraging strategy and should be considered opportunistic and flexible feeder.

Economic Importance of Genus Apion (Apioninae: Apionidae: Curculionoidea: Coleptera)

The biology of common Indian species Apion (Thymapion) majorinum Fst. has been studied in detail. The variations in food habits of 31 other species have been given in relation to feeding behaviour of Apion (T.) majorinum Fst. The importance of Apion amplum (Fst.) and Apion clavipes Gerst. as pests of edible legumes and Apion corchori Mar. as destroyer of jute has been stressed. The species attacking stems, roots, leaves and flowers including buds have been listed separately. These species attack members of plant families Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Polygonaceae and Malvaceae.

The Inter-Relationship between Dietary and Environmental Properties and Tooth Wear: Comparisons of Mesowear, Molar Wear Rate, and Hypsodonty Index of Extant Sika Deer Populations

In reference to the evolutionary trend of increasing cheek tooth height in herbivorous ungulates, the causes of dental abrasion have long been debated. Interspecific comparisons of extant ungulates have revealed that both phytoliths in grass and external abrasive matter may play important roles. Using analysis of extant sika deer living in various environments and showing continuous latitudinal variation in food habits from northern grazing to southern browsing, we quantitatively evaluated the influence of dietary and environmental properties on three dental variables: mesowear score (MS), molar wear rate, and M3 hypsodonty index. We used 547 skulls and 740 mandibles from 16 populations of sika deer to obtain the dental measurements. We found that only graminoid proportion in diet correlated with MS and the molar wear rate, implying that phytoliths in grass abrade dental tissues. In contrast, annual precipitation in habitat was not correlated with any of the dental variables. We also found a significant correlation between the molar wear rate (selective pressure for high-crowned molars) and the M3 hypsodonty index of extant sika deer, implying an evolutionary increment in molar height corresponding to the molar wear rate. Our intraspecific comparative analyses provide further support for use of mesowear analysis as a paleodiet estimation method; it not only reveals staple food types (graminoids or dicots) but also implies regional or seasonal variation in the diet of the species.

Studies on the Food and Feeding Habits of Swamp Deer (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii) in Jhilmil Jheel Conservation Reserve, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India

Food habits of the swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii) were studied in and around Jhilmil Jheel Conservation Reserve (JJCR), Uttarakhand, for two years. This population (320 in number) was recently rediscovered in the state (2005) and warranted an ecological study because the habitat around this study area is heavily fragmented due to expansion of agriculture, habitation, and various other land use practices. Therefore, this study was initiated by the major objective of studying seasonal variation in food habits of swamp deer. Proportionate food consumption was studied using feeding quadrat method. The study reveals that the overall diet of swamp deer consisted mainly of graminoids (grasses and sedges) and herbs (terrestrial and aquatic). In the protected areas studied earlier, the swamp deer habitat was dominated by grasses, and hence they were reported to be predominantly a grazer who occasionally fed on aquatic plants (Schaller 1967 and others). In contrast, at Jhilmil, the area also has equal presence of other plant types namely, sedges and terrestrial herbs. This resulted in polyphagous feeding habit of animal here.

Local Variation in Diet Composition of the Japanese Serow During Winter

We investigated local geographical variation in the plant composition and quality (crude protein) of the diet of the Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus) by analyzing rumen contents. We collected the rumen contents from 111 Japanese serows culled for pest control between January and March 1997 in Shizuoka Prefecture, central Japan. The composition of the diet, characterized by a high proportion of browse (65.2%), including green plant leaves (55.3%), confirmed that the Japanese serow is a typical browser, at least in winter. Although the composition of the diet varied geographically even within Shizuoka Prefecture (i.e. the northern populations included less green broad leaves, and more grasses and Sasa spp.), altitude did not affect the composition. Latitudinal variation in plant composition of the diet was explained by a shift in plant availability within vegetation zones from evergreen broad-leaf to deciduous broad-leaf forests. Lack of variation in the diet plant composition with changes in altitude may be explained by probably greater altitudinal than latitudinal variation in the territories of the Japanese serow, and by greater individual variation in food habits. Diet quality remained at a constant high level regardless of altitudinal and latitudinal variation in diet plant composition. This suggests that the Japanese serow maintains a high-quality diet by selective feeding, which is possible only when the serow is at low population density and in possession of a territory.

Selenium and vitamins status in Saudi children

Background Selenium is an essential element, and a cofactor required to maintain glutathione peroxidase activity. Its deficiency may induce modification in the cellular antioxidative status and the appearance of different diseases. Previous studies in Al-Kharj reported low selenium levels in the soil and the milk of lactating mothers living in that area. Methods A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the status of selenium, dl-α-tocopherol, and all- trans-retinol in 513 Saudi children living in Al-Kharj district using serum and toenail samples. Results The prevalence of children with serum selenium below the threshold limit of clinical importance in coronary and cardiovascular diseases (45 μg/l) was only 1.4%, while 53.4% of the tested children had toenail selenium > 0.56 μg/g, which is considered a low level as indicated in a previous study. dl-α-tocopherol deficiency (< 0.5 mg/dl) was found only in 3.1%. However, none of the children in this study had a severe all- trans-retinol deficiency (< 10 μg/dl) and the percentage of children with marginal deficiency < 20 μg/dl was 5.5%. Conclusion It seems that the geographical location of primary health care units (PHCUs) is the most important factor in influencing the selenium status of these children. This implies variations in food habits. Serum and toenail selenium concentrations were significantly related which can both reflect dietary selenium intake. Although our results suggest an adequate vitamin A status, we found interestingly that 10.9% of the children had retinol > 50 μg/dl. This suggests that a high dietary intake of vitamin A might have a harmful effect. Further work is necessary to determine whether the hypervitaminosis A in children reflects an excessive dietary intake of retinol. A significant negative association was also found between dl-α-tocopherol and all- trans-retinol and malonaldehyde (MDA) levels in the serum of children population. This confirms their role in reducing oxidative stress.

Diel and Seasonal Variation in Food Habits of Atlantic Salmon Parr in a Small Stream

ABSTRACT The diel and seasonal food habits of young-of-year (YOY) and post-young-of-year (PYOY) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr were assayed over the course of 11 months in the West Brook, Massachusetts USA. Gut fullness of YOY salmon did not vary significantly among months. PYOY salmon exhibited significant seasonal differences in gut fullness, with peak fullness occurring in the spring and late fall. Significant diel differences in PYOY gut fullness occurred in June and April, with peak fullness always occurring at dawn. Prey composition varied substantially among months. Dominant prey items of PYOY salmon were baetid mayflies in June, July, and August, limnephilid caddisflies in October and November, and ephemerellid mayflies in February and April. Few differences in prey composition between PYOY and YOY salmon were observed. Fish growth was unrelated to prey availability, but gut fullness explained up to 97% of growth variation across seasons. Results suggest that spring and fall are critical periods of feeding for PYOY salmon and that diel feeding intensity shifts seasonally.

VARIATION IN DIET OF THE MEXICAN FREE-TAILED BAT (TADARIDA BRASILIENSIS MEXICANA)

This study documents the diet of Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana) at Carlsbad Cavern, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, Eddy County, New Mexico, and provides information on seasonal variation in food habits of this species throughout its summer residence. Diet was determined from 1,303 fecal samples. Eleven orders and 38 families of insects, unidentified insects, 2 orders of Arachnida (Araneae and Acari), bat hair, and mist net were consumed, with Lepidoptera (moths) and Coleoptera (beetles) occurring at greatest percentage volumes and percentage frequencies in the diet. Diet varied significantly throughout the season. Twenty-two food categories exhibited statistically significant variation among sampling sessions. Amounts of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Formicidae, Psyllidae, Hymenoptera, and Diptera consumed showed the greatest differences among sampling sessions.

Martens and fishers (Martes) in human-altered environments: an international perspective

Is Mustelid Life History Different?- World Distribution and Status of the Genus Martes in 2000.- Geographical and Seasonal Variation in Food Habits and Prey Size of European Pine Martens.- Territoriality and Home-Range Fidelity of American Martens in Relation to Timber Harvesting and Trapping.- Martes Foot-Loading and Snowfall Patterns in Eastern North America: Implications to Broad-Scale Distributions and Interactions of Mesocarnivores.- Home Ranges, Cognitive Maps, Habitat Models and Fitness Landscapes for Martes.- Relationships Between Stone Martens, Genets and Cork Oak Woodlands in Portugal.- Relationships Between Forest Structure and Habitat Use by American Martens in Maine, USA.- Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Selection of Rest Structures by Fishers.- Zoogeography, Spacing Patterns, and Dispersal in Fishers: Insights Gained from Combining Field and Genetic Data.- Harvest Status, Reproduction and Mortality in a Population of American Martens in Quebec, Canada.- Are Scat Surveys a Reliable Method for Assessing Distribution and Population Status of Pine Martens?- Postnatal Growth and Development in Fishers.- Field Anesthesia of American Martens Using Isoflurane.

Food habits of sika deer in the Shiranuka Hills, eastern Hokkaido: a northern example from the north–south variations in food habits in sika deer

AbstractSeasonal changes in the composition of the diet of the sika deer population in the Shiranuka Hills, eastern Hokkaido, in 1998 were determined by fecal analyses. The deer were dependent on Sasa nipponica, a dwarf bamboo, throughout the year, particularly in winter when it accounted for as much as 77.7% of the diet. It accounted for 33.1% and 45.6% in spring and summer, respectively, and this decreased to 12.2% in autumn. Besides S. nipponica, all the graminoid categories accounted for large amounts (66–96.7%), while dicotyledonous plants accounted for little (3–8%) except in autumn when they accounted for 31%. The strong dependence of the Shiranuka population on graminoids was different from other Hokkaido deer populations, for example the population from Ashoro/Onbetsu and the extremely high density population on Nakanoshima Island. In spite of these differences, food for all Hokkaido sika deer was poor in winter. Along the north–south geographical cline in the food composition of sika deer along the Japanese archipelago, the Shiranuka population was positioned as a grazer type, in contrast to the southern populations. However, it is important to note that variations are great among local populations in Hokkaido.

Soil arthropods in a developmental succession on the Nouragues inselberg (French Guiana)

Tropical inselbergs are isolated rock outcrops with a special type of vegetation surrounded by rain forest. They are exposed to a harsh climate (alternation of heavy rain and severe drought) and provide few nutrients for plant growth. The aim of our study was to investigate a possible correlation between primary plant succession, size and diversity of soil arthropods. The study site was the Nouragues inselberg, in French Guiana (South America). Nine soil samples (three samples in each vegetation type) were taken for the study of soil arthropod communities and their food habits in three habitat types: Pitcairnia geyskesi (Bromeliaceae), Clusia minor (Clusiaceae) and Myrcia saxatilis (Myrtaceae), which represent three stages in a primary plant succession on this inselberg. Soil arthropods were classified into morphospecies under the dissecting microscope and their food habits were characterized by examining their gut contents under the light microscope. A variation in food habits was observed, cyanobacteria being found in arthropod guts only during the Pitcairnia stage, and were replaced by plant material at the Myrcia stage. Carnivory was prominent in oribatid mites, contrary to temperate records. All our samples contained large numbers of microarthropods, principally mites and collembolans. At the Myrcia stage arthropod density was significantly higher than at the two other stages. Macroinvertebrates are present only at late and intermediate successional stages. The number of macropredators increased by a factor of 10 in species richness and 100 in abundance along the succession. These results suggest that abundance and diversity of soil arthropods increased throughout the plant succession and show the importance of organic matter as a factor which can explain the observed phenomenon.

FOOD AVAILABILITY AND FOOD HABITS OF INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRRELS (PETAURISTA PHILIPPENSIS) IN TAIWAN

We assessed seasonal variation in food habits of Indian giant flying squirrels (Petaurista philippensis) and food availability at Fushan Experimental Forest in Taiwan. Between July 1997 and December 1998, giant flying squirrels consumed at least 79 species-specific parts belonging to 30 plant species from 19 families. Castanopsis cuspidata was eaten most often (24.95% of annual diet), followed by Ficus superba (14.67%) and Glochidion acuminatum (12.18%). P. philippensis fed mainly on young leaves (27.7% of annual diet) and mature leaves (24.0%). Leaf parts (including buds, petioles, young leaves, and mature leaves) constituted 74.0% of the annual diet. Monthly and annual diet variation was obvious, and this was related to availability of species-specific plant parts. P. philippensis fed on mature leaves and petioles in winter; buds, young leaves, and fruit in spring; and young leaves and fruit in summer and autumn. They preferred buds, young leaves, flowers, and fruit to mature leaves and petioles. However, mature leaves and petioles seemed to be relied on when more favorable food items were scarce.