Variability Of Evapotranspiration Research Articles

Assessing the effect of climate change on spatiotemporal variations in reference evapotranspiration across Iraq

Assessing the effect of climate change on spatiotemporal variations in reference evapotranspiration across Iraq

Spatiotemporal variations and driving factors of evapotranspiration in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau from 2003 to 2020

ABSTRACT Evapotranspiration (ET) is vital for the Earth's energy and water balance, particularly influenced by global climate change. The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau (YGP), characterized by abundant water resources and intricate terrain, has been a subject of study. However, previous research often overlooked intra-annual climate variations in ET. This study employed high-spatiotemporal resolution ET data from 2003 to 2020 to quantitatively analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of ET on the YGP. The annual ET showed an increasing trend of 0.18 mm/year, with monthly ET increases in January, March, November, and December, mainly influenced by vegetation transpiration, which accounts for 56% of ET. Breakpoints in ET trends and seasonal components occurred in January 2007 and June 2018. The geodetector model assessed the impact of 15 driving factors on ET, with net radiation and vegetation index playing dominant roles with q-values of 0.29 and 0.24. Factor impacts varied seasonally, with greater influence in the dry season (q-value of 0.53 for net radiation in January) and lesser in the rainy season (q-value of 0.08 in August). Pearson correlation analysis indicated that different driving factors influenced ET in different months. These findings enhance understanding of plateau ET responses to climate change mechanisms.

The Dynamics of Vegetation Evapotranspiration and Its Response to Surface Meteorological Factors in the Altay Mountains, Northwest China

The Altay Mountains’ forests are vital to Xinjiang’s terrestrial ecosystem, especially water regulation and conservation. This study evaluates vegetation evapotranspiration (ET) from 2000 to 2017 using temperature, precipitation, and ET data from the China Meteorological Data Sharing Service. The dataset underwent quality control and was interpolated using the inverse distance weighted (IDW) method. Correlation analysis and climate trend methodologies were applied to assess the impacts of temperature, precipitation, drought, and extreme weather events on ET. The results indicate that air temperature had a minimal effect on ET, with 68.34% of the region showing weak correlations (coefficients between −0.2 and 0.2). Conversely, precipitation exhibited a strong positive correlation with ET across 98.91% of the area. Drought analysis, using the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) and the Temperature Vegetation Dryness Index (TVDI), showed that ET was significantly correlated with the SPEI in 96.47% of the region, while the TVDI displayed both positive and negative correlations. Extreme weather events also significantly influenced ET, with reductions in the Simple Daily Intensity Index (SDII), heavy precipitation days (R95p, R10), and increases in indicators like growing season length (GSL) and warm spell duration index (WSDI) leading to variations in ET. Based on the correlation coefficients and their significance, it was confirmed that the SII (precipitation intensity) and R95p (heavy precipitation) are the main factors causing vegetation ET increases. These findings offer crucial insights into the interactions between meteorological variables and ET, essential information for sustainable forest management, by highlighting the importance of optimizing water regulation strategies, such as adjusting species composition and forest density to enhance resilience against drought and extreme weather, thereby ensuring long-term forest health and productivity in response to climate change.

Comparative analysis of FAO dual Kc, Priestley‐Taylor and flux variance similarity methods in partitioning evapotranspiration from flood‐irrigated rice fields

AbstractAccurate quantification of evapotranspiration (ET) and its bifurcation into productive transpiration (T) and unproductive evaporation (E) are essential for the successful implementation of sustainable irrigation practices. This study compares the performances of three distinct methods for partitioning ET into E and T fluxes from flood‐irrigated rice fields. These methods include: i) the FAO dual Kc‐ETo model, which utilizes Penman–Monteith (PM) estimates of reference ET and crop‐specific scaling factors; ii) the Priestley‐Taylor (PT) method, which relies on radiation‐driven energy balance at the canopy surface; and iii) the flux variance similarity (FVS) method, which utilizes high‐frequency eddy covariance (EC) measurements of carbon and water vapour fluxes. Meteorological, phenological and hydrological parameters were monitored over two winter seasons in a paddy field, replicating site‐specific management strategies. The cumulative ETs obtained from the PM, PT and FVS methods were 445 mm, 300 mm and 356 mm, respectively, for season 1 and 428 mm, 321 mm and 375 mm, respectively, for season 2. The accuracy of the ET estimation and partition methods was assessed against independent measurements of ET and E using a lysimeter and a microlysimeter. The results demonstrated that the EC‐based FVS method offers superior accuracy in both quantifying (R2 = 0.67, RMSE = 0.70 mm) and partitioning (R2 = 0.51, RMSE = 0.76 mm) ET fluxes, followed by the PM‐based FAO dual Kc‐ETo and PT methods. Evaporation accounted for 29 ± 5% of consumptive water use, highlighting an opportunity for the implementation of water‐saving strategies, particularly during vegetative and transplantation stages. The findings of the path analysis indicate that vegetative and radiation factors influence ET variation, while meteorological and soil factors significantly impact T variation.

Effects of hydrological variability on the sustainable use of water in a regional economy. An application to Tuscany

Existing input-output (IO) models have mainly focused on water demand. Some studies have incorporated water supply (availability), but do not take into account its natural variability, an essential element when performing a water stress analysis. The present study integrates the hydrological variability of water availability into a hydroeconomic IO model, considering its exogenous effects on water supply and its exogenous effects on water demand. Two endogenous effects are considered: i) changes in blue water requirements in the agricultural industry due to variations in precipitation and evapotranspiration, and ii) changes in grey water requirements in all discharging industries due to variations in runoff and groundwater recharge. By means of a T-years hydrological series and Monte Carlo simulations, the model allows estimating T values of the Extended Water Exploitation Index (EWEI), obtaining its empirical probability distribution and confronting it with scarcity thresholds. Additionally, the model includes a methodology to incorporate intra-annual variation, obtaining the critical month EWEI and defining a more transparent and endogenous scarcity threshold. Empirically tested for the Italian region of Tuscany considering a multivariate hydrological model for the generation of a 100-year hydrological series, our results allow a more in-depth analysis of water scarcity in the region.

Water budgets in an arid and alpine permafrost basin: Observations from the High Mountain Asia

Ground freeze‒thaw processes have significant impacts on infiltration, runoff and evapotranspiration. However, there are still critical knowledge gaps in understanding of hydrological processes in permafrost regions, especially of the interactions among permafrost, ecology, and hydrology. In this study, an alpine permafrost basin on the northeastern Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau was selected to conduct hydrological and meteorological observations. We analyzed the annual variations in runoff, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and changes in water storage, as well as the mechanisms for runoff generation in the basin from May 2014 to December 2015. The annual flow curve in the basin exhibited peaks both in spring and autumn floods. The high ratio of evapotranspiration to annual precipitation (>1.0) in the investigated wetland is mainly due to the considerably underestimated ‘observed’ precipitation caused by the wind-induced instrumental error and the neglect of snow sublimation. The stream flow from early May to late October probably came from the lateral discharge of subsurface flow in alpine wetlands. This study can provide data support and validation for hydrological model simulation and prediction, as well as water resource assessment, in the upper Yellow River Basin, especially for the headwater area. The results also provide case support for permafrost hydrology modeling in ungauged or poorly gauged watersheds in the High Mountain Asia.

Analysing the Temporal Variation of \(ET_0\) and Water Requirement of Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) Over Different Agroclimatic Zones of Uttar Pradesh by Using CROPWAT

The agriculture sector is a major consumer of the water resource to fulfill the requirement of irrigation and its dependency on ground water is 70-90%. It is important to understand the crop water requirement to prepare a sustainable management of water resources. The Experiment was conducted for estimation of water requirement of Mustard crop and temporal variability of crop evapotranspiration for different Agroclimatic zones of Uttar Pradesh during time period (1992-2022). In this India Meteorological Department (IMD) Daily Gridded data (Maximum temperature, Minimum temperature and rainfall) is used and converted into Weekly, Monthly, Seasonally and Annually from Weather cock for run in the CROPWAT model which estimate the Reference evapotranspiration (ET0), Effective Rainfall, Crop water requirement and Irrigation water requirement. After that we analyze the trend by using Mann-Kendall test. The result of the experiment revealed that the Average maximum temperature was 32.13±0.37℃ and average minimum temperature was 18.96±0.35℃ average rainfall estimated 638.45±170.92mm. The monthly analysis of maximum temperature for 30 years data revealed that the month of January has lowest maximum temperature while May month observes highest maximum temperature for all the nine Agroclimatic zones of Uttar Pradesh and the lowest minimum temperature was in month of January in all the agroclimatic zones. The monthly analysis of rainfall for time period (1992-2022) showed that for overall Uttar Pradesh region July, August month receives the highest amount of rainfall, while November, December month receives lowest rainfall.

Quantifying the effects of climate and environmental changes on evapotranspiration variability in the Sahel

Whilst considerable research has been carried out to understand the effects of reforestation on evapotranspiration (ET), such studies are generally absent in the Sahel even though the region is currently undergoing extensive reforestation to halt desertification and land degradation. The objective of this study is to identify and quantify the dominant climatic and environmental factors influencing ET variability in the Sahel. However, achieving this goal in the Sahel is hindered by a lack of in situ monitoring data. To overcome this challenge, this study adopts geospatial datasets along with analytical methods to assess the climatic and environmental factors affecting ET in 45 watersheds in the Sahel over a period of four decades (1982–2021). Analyses show significant increasing trends in annual ET in more than 90% of the watersheds. Precipitation and mean temperature show significant increasing trends in all watersheds while windspeed, vapour pressure, solar radiation, specific humidity, and atmospheric evaporative demand show mixed results with both increasing and decreasing trends in different watersheds. Environmental variables including soil moisture, and vegetation cover measured using the normalised difference vegetative index (NDVI) also show consistent increasing trends in all watersheds. Statistical analyses further show that climatic and environmental factors contribute about 80% of ET variance. The relative contribution of climatic variables on ET variance is 75.11% while that of environmental variables is 24.71%. This suggests that climatic factors have a higher influence on ET variability than environmental factors. Analyses using the double logarithm elasticity model show that vapour pressure has the highest positive elasticity coefficient (2.58) on ET while net radiation has the highest negative elasticity coefficient (−9.58). This is the first study to cover the whole Sahelian belt from west to east and the results may be crucial for adopting climate-smart reforestation policies, enhance regional water management and improve our knowledge of vegetation-hydrology-climate interactions in the Sahel.

Scale-specific controls of monthly suspended sediment load in a typical inland river

Sediment transport is a multi-scale and non-linear process controlled by multiple variables. Given the intricate nature of sediment transport mechanisms and the overlap of different factors’ effects on it at various time scales, unraveling the relationship between sediment load and its influencing factors is challenging. This study aimed to elucidate the multi-timescale effects of factors on monthly suspended sediment load in a seasonal inland river. In this study, monthly sediment loads measured by the depth-integrating method were obtained from the Tabu River Basin in northern China from 2007 to 2021, alongside data on four controlling factors: runoff, precipitation, water surface evaporation, and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The results showed that sediment load, runoff, and precipitation showed strong variability during 2007–2021, while water surface evaporation and NDVI exhibited moderate variability. Multivariate empirical mode decomposition (MEMD) decomposed the temporal patterns of sediment load and associated variables into five intrinsic mode functions (IMF) and a residue. IMF1 (4.7 months), IMF2 (9.0 months) and IMF3 (14.2 months) collectively explained 115.88 %, 91.73 %, 91.28 %, 107.69 %, and 106.09 % of the total variability in sediment load, runoff, precipitation, water surface evaporation, and NDVI, respectively. Subsequently, the time-dependent intrinsic correlation (TDIC) was utilized to illustrate the inherent relationships between sediment load and its controlling factors across various time scales. The associations between sediment load and the controlling factors changed significantly with the scale. Runoff was the dominant factor controlling sediment load at IMF1 (4.7 months), IMF2 (9.0 months), IMF3 (14.2 months), and IMF4 (25.1 months). Water surface evaporation controlled the sediment transport process at IMF5 (63.6 months). The prediction of sediment load on the measurement scale, using scale-specific controls analyzed with MEMD (R2 = 0.993), demonstrated superior performance compared to traditional multiple linear regression prediction (R2 = 0.748). This study will provide a theoretical basis for effective prevention and control of soil erosion and watershed management in inland river basins.

Streamflow diurnal fluctuation and driving mechanism of headwater stream in a semi-humid mountainous region

Diurnal fluctuation in streamflow during rainless periods provides valuable signals for the calibration of hydrological models and comprehension of hydrological processes. Previous research has primarily focused on this phenomenon in the context of single-factor analysis in the Mediterranean, Maritime, and Alpine climates of Middle Europe and Western US. This study is based on the Xitaizi Experimental Watershed (XEW), a typical mountainous headwater watershed situated in the semi-humid monsoon North China Plain. Seven years of high-frequency observation data were used to investigate the characteristics of streamflow diurnal fluctuation, its driving mechanisms, and the propagation pathways of these fluctuation signals through hillslope-riparian-stream. The results are as follows: (1) Streamflow exhibits diurnal fluctuation during rainless periods throughout the year, with variations up to 36% of the daily mean and distinct patterns in rainy (peak at night) and dry seasons (peak in the afternoon). Choosing the proper timing for daily discharge observation can reduce bias due to fluctuations. (2) In rainy seasons, the impact of discharge fluctuation is significant, particularly in years with lower discharge. Meanwhile, the soil moisture in both the hillslope and the riparian zone, and the groundwater level in the riparian zone exhibit a daytime decline and a nighttime rise. The groundwater level in the hillslope fluctuates with a lag time of approximately 6 to 9 hours. (3) Numerical simulations and cross-correlation analysis demonstrate that the dominant driving mechanism of diurnal fluctuations in rainy seasons is the diurnal evapotranspiration variation in the riparian zone, while the influence of aquifer hydraulic conductivity is insignificant.

Estimation and spatiotemporal analysis of actual evapotranspiration over Qinghai-Tibet Plateau using an Alpine Grassland-Adapted Priestley-Taylor model

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a crucial process in the land water cycle, energy balance, and carbon cycle, making it essential for understanding ecosystem health and climate change. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) is a vital contributor to the global water cycle and ecosystem, and its water resources and ecological environment are of great significance to the development and survival of Asia. To accurately estimate ET on the QTP, this paper proposes an improved Priestley-Taylor (PT) model based on shortwave infrared soil moisture index (SIMI). The model is applied to estimate ET on the QTP from 2011 to 2020, allowing for a comprehensive spatiotemporal analysis. The findings indicate that, (1) The PT-SIMI model has higher estimation accuracy than both the Modified Satellite-Based Priestley-Taylor (MS-PT) model and the Priestley-Taylor Jet Propulsion Laboratory (PT-JPL) model at most sites, particularly in alpine grasslands sites, and demonstrates a greater sensitivity in capturing changes in soil moisture; (2) the spatial distribution of ET on the QTP demonstrates a declining pattern from southeast to northwest; (3) the average ET from 2011 to 2020 remains relatively stable at 478 mm/year; (4) notable spatial variations in ET are observed across the plateau, with noticeable upward trends observed in the central and western regions, while the south central region experiencing a decreasing trend. This study provides valuable insights into the water cycle and ecological environment of the QTP and its findings can support sustainable development in the region.

The energy-limited water loss of an alpine shrubland on the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China

Study regionAlpine shrubland on the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Study focusWater provision ability is a pivotal ecological service of high-altitude alpine regions and is controlled by precipitation, evapotranspiration (ET), and soil water storage whereas the underlying ecohydrological processes remain highly unquantified. Here, we investigated continuous 19-year flux measurements to quantify the temporal patterns of ET and water budget (precipitation minus ET, P−ET), as well as 0-20 cm soil water storage change (ΔSWS). New hydrological insights for the regionAt a monthly scale, ET peaked in July (96.7 ± 26.4 mm, Mean ± S.D.) and averaged 41.7 ± 31.9 mm, whose variations were determined by the slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve at air temperature, air and soil temperatures, regardless of vegetation growth stage. P−ET averaged 18.3 ± 26.3 mm in August and September while stayed deficit during the other months. The variations in P−ET were controlled by precipitation in the May-October growing season whereas by ET in the non-growing season from November to April. ΔSWS peaked in May (28.8 ± 11.2 mm) and September (3.0 ± 2.7 mm) and almost accumulated to zero over the whole season. At annual scales, none of ET, P−ET, and ΔSWS changed significantly. ET averaged 512.2 ± 68.4 mm and exceeded precipitation (459.1 ± 58.4 mm), likely due to the lateral flow supply of uphill locations. The variations in ET were regulated directly by bulk canopy resistance and indirectly by net radiation. P−ET averaged −53.2 ± 95.4 mm and demonstrated a clear water deficit (−51.6 ± 21.0 mm) during the non-growing season. The variations of P−ET were driven jointly by precipitation and ET, with opposite but equivalent effects. The dominance of thermal conditions and energy availability on ET variability manifested an energy-limited feature of water loss in the alpine shrubland. The temporal patterns in P−ET elucidated that the alpine shrubland plays the water retention rather than water provision function through transforming variable precipitation input into stable ET loss.

Satellite-Based PT-SinRH Evapotranspiration Model: Development and Validation from AmeriFlux Data

The Priestley–Taylor model of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (PT-JPL) evapotranspiration (ET) model is relatively simple and has been widely used based on meteorological and satellite data. However, soil moisture (SM) constraints include a vapor pressure deficit (VPD) that causes large uncertainty. In this study, we proposed a PT-SinRH model by introducing a sine function of air relative humidity (RH) to replace RHVPD to characterize SM constraints, which can improve the accuracy of ET estimations. The PT-SinRH model is validated by eddy covariance (EC) data from 2000–2020. These data were collected by AmeriFlux at 28 sites on the conterminous United States (CONUS), and the land cover types of the sites vary from croplands to wetlands, grasslands, shrub lands and forests. The validation results from daily scale-based on-site and satellite data inputs showed that the PT-SinRH model estimates fit the observations with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.55, root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 17.5 W/m2, bias of −1.2 W/m2 and Kling–Gupta efficiency (KGE) of 0.70. Additionally, the PT-SinRH model based on reanalysis and satellite data inputs has an R2 of 0.49, an RMSE of 20.3 W/m2, a bias of −8.6 W/m2 and a KGE of 0.55. The PT-SinRH model showed better accuracy when using the site-measured meteorological data than when using reanalysis meteorological data as inputs. Additionally, compared with the PT-JPL model, the results demonstrate that our approach, i.e., PT-SinRH, improved ET estimates, increasing the R2 and KGE by 0.02 and decreasing the RMSE by about 0.6 W/m2. This simple but accurate method permits us to investigate the decadal variation in regional ET over the land.

Can changes in land use in a semi-arid region of Brazil cause seasonal variation in energy partitioning and evapotranspiration?

Changes to forests due to deforestation, or their replacement by agricultural areas, alter evapotranspiration and the partitioning of available energy. This study investigated seasonal variations in the energy balance and evapotranspiration in landscapes under different levels of anthropogenic intervention in the semi-arid region of Brazil. Micrometeorological data was obtained from September 2020 to October 2022 for three areas of the semi-arid region: preserved Caatinga (CAA, native vegetation), Caatinga under regeneration (REGE) and a deforested area (DEFA). Here, we use the Bowen ratio energy balance method. Measurements were taken of global solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, vapour pressure deficit, rainfall, net radiation, latent heat flux, sensible heat flux, soil heat flux, evapotranspiration, volumetric soil water content and Normalised Difference Vegetation Index. Sensible heat flux was the dominant flux in both areas with 66% for preserved Caatinga vegetation, 63% for Caatinga under regeneration and 62% deforested area. The latent heat flux was equivalent to 28% of the net radiation for preserved Caatinga vegetation, Caatinga under regeneration and deforested area. The evapotranspiration in turn responded as a function of water availability, being higher during the rainy seasons, with average values of 1.82 mm day−1 for preserved Caatinga vegetation, 2.26 mm day−1 for Caatinga under regeneration and 1.25 mm day−1 for deforested area. The Bowen ratio presented values > 1 in deforested area, preserved Caatinga vegetation and Caatinga under regeneration. Thus, it can be concluded that the change in land use alters the energy balance components, promoting reductions in available energy and latent and sensible heat fluxes during the rainy-dry transition in the deforested area. In addition, the seasonality of energy fluxes depends on water availability in the environment.

Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Variations in Evapotranspiration and Its Driving Factors Based on Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data: A Case Study of the Heihe River Basin

The validation of remotely sensed evapotranspiration (ET) products is important for the development of ET estimation models and the accuracy of the scientific application of the products. In this study, different ET products such as HiTLL, MOD16A2, ETMonitor, and SoGAE were compared using multi-source remote sensing data and ground-based data to evaluate their applicability in the Heihe River Basin (HRB) during 2010–2019. The results of the comparison with the site observations show that ETMonitor provides a more stable and reliable estimation of ET than the other three products. The ET exhibited significant variations over the decade, characterized by a general increase in rates across the HRB. These changes were markedly influenced by variations in land use and topographical features. Specifically, the analysis showed that farmland and forested areas had higher ET rates due to greater vegetation cover and moisture availability, while grasslands and water bodies demonstrated lower ET rates, reflecting their respective land cover characteristics. This study further explored the influence of various factors on ET, including land use changes, NDVI, temperature, and precipitation. It was found that changes in land use, such as increases in agricultural areas or reforestation efforts, directly influenced ET rates. Moreover, meteorological conditions such as temperature and precipitation patterns also played crucial roles, with warmer temperatures and higher precipitation correlating with increased ET. This study highlights the significant impact of land use and climatic factors on spatiotemporal variations in ET within the HRB, underscoring its importance for optimizing water resource management and land use planning in arid regions.

Spatial-temporal variations in evapotranspiration across the continental United States: An atmospheric water balance perspective

Accurate estimation of terrestrial evapotranspiration (ET) is crucial for understanding land–atmosphere interactions, but is challenging on the regional scales. The water balance approach, including terrestrial and atmospheric water balance (TWB and AWB), provides a simple tool for estimating regional ET. This study estimated ET values based on the AWB approach (ETAWB) over the continental United States (CONUS) for the period 1979–2021. Validations using TWB-based ET estimates (ETTWB) suggest that ETAWB is accurate. ETAWB demonstrates comparable interannual variability with the other three long-term ET products over the CONUS and is consistent with ETTWB in the majority of basins. The 43-year CONUS averaged ETAWB is 548 ± 26 mm/year, with higher values in the eastern region and the coastal regions in the western CONUS, and lower values in the western arid regions. During 1979–2021, increasing trends of ETAWB are observed in the eastern CONUS, while decreasing trends occurred in the western regions. The intercomparison between ETAWB, GLEAM, Noah, and ERA5 illustrates similar spatial patterns and linear trends. In the water-limited arid basins, ETAWB anomalies over time show strong agreements with precipitation anomalies. The results of this study indicate that the AWB approach provides reasonable regional-to-continental terrestrial ET estimates over the CONUS, serving as a reference for hydrological and climatic modeling.

Impact assessment of agricultural droughts on water use efficiency in different climatic regions of Punjab Province Pakistan using MODIS time series imagery

AbstractDrought is the most destructive phenomenon that distresses the terrestrial carbon cycle balance and crop production. The variation in evapotranspiration (ET) and gross primary productivity (GPP) is a significant cause of agricultural drought effects on water use efficiency. This study aims to evaluate the impact of agricultural drought on WUE and it's anomalies in different climate regions. The standard vegetation index was used to measure the extent of agricultural drought. WUE was calculated using the ratio of ET, GPP, and climate classification using the De Martonne method. This study was conducted over the last 22 years, from 2001 to 2022. Meanwhile, 2001, 2002, 2014, and 2018 were considered high drought years based on a 22‐year analysis. According to remote sensing analysis of ET and GPP, the WUE increased throughout drought in all climate regions and more strongly in the arid zone than in humid regions. Humid areas were more vital due to drought than arid ones. WUE anomalies badge with increased drought severity across all climates except the very humid zone. Humid climates saw faster recovery times than arid ones, and areas experienced severe droughts. The findings of this research are essential for understanding the carbon and water cycles for agriculture management. The analysis of drought severity and WUE across arid climate regions helped analyse the varying impact of drought on WUE due to climate change. The significance of this study includes informing agricultural, water resource, and drought management planning in the Punjab Province, an agricultural region vulnerable to climate change. This study holds important learnings for agricultural regions worldwide. It has practical and scientific importance regarding agricultural systems' specific stresses and responses to droughts.

Effect of ecological restoration on evapotranspiration and water yield in the agro-pastoral ecotone in northern China during 2000–2018

Evapotranspiration (ET) and water yield (WY) play a crucial role in sustaining available water resources, and are greatly affected by climate and anthropogenic activities. The agro-pastoral ecotone in northern China (APENC) has been undergoing ecological restoration projects since 2000 to rehabilitate ecosystem services such as food production and water availability. Previous studies have primarily accessed the combined effect of vegetation greening and climate change on ET. However, the independent influences of these factors, particularly land use/cover change (LUCC) and vegetation greening on both ET and WY remain poorly understood. In this study, we systematically investigated the effect of LUCC, vegetation greening, and climate change scenarios on regional ET and WY variations from 2000 to 2018 in the APENC using a coupled carbon and water model. Results showed a significant increase in the mean annual ET, with a trend of 5.8 mm/y while the WY had a statistically insignificant trend of −0.6 mm/y from 2000 to 2018. Areas with significant increases in ET and decreases in WY mainly occurred in the southeastern part of the APENC. Vegetation greening induced by ecological restoration had a more pronounced impact on ET variation than climate change, while LUCC resulted in relatively minor changes in ET in the APENC. The variations in WY were primarily influenced by changes in precipitation, the increase in precipitation effectively offset the decrease in WY caused by vegetation greening. These findings provide valuable information to policy/decision markers for sustainable management of large-scale ecological restoration programs in dry regions.

Spatiotemporal variation in rice evapotranspiration under the influence of rice expansion: a case study in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China

Spatiotemporal variation in rice evapotranspiration under the influence of rice expansion: a case study in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China

Long-term trend and interannual variation in evapotranspiration of a young temperate Douglas-fir stand over 2002-2022 reveals the impacts of climate change.

The shortage of decades-long continuous measurements of ecosystem processes limits our understanding of how changing climate impacts forest ecosystems. We used continuous eddy-covariance and hydrometeorological data over 2002-2022 from a young Douglas-fir stand on Vancouver Island, Canada to assess the long-term trend and interannual variability in evapotranspiration (ET) and transpiration (T). Collectively, annual T displayed a decreasing trend over the 21 years with a rate of 1% yr-1, which is attributed to the stomatal downregulation induced by rising atmospheric CO2 concentration. Similarly, annual ET also showed a decreasing trend since evaporation stayed relatively constant. Variability in detrended annual ET was mostly controlled by the average soil water storage during the growing season (May-October). Though the duration and intensity of the drought did not increase, the drought-induced decreases in T and ET showed an increasing trend. This pattern may reflect the changes in forest structure, related to the decline in the deciduous understory cover during the stand development. These results suggest that the water-saving effect of stomatal regulation and water-related factors mostly determined the trend and variability in ET, respectively. This may also imply an increase in the limitation of water availability on ET in young forests, associated with the structural and compositional changes related to forest growth.