Variability Of Essential Oils Research Articles

Principal Component and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of Major Compound Variation in Essential Oil among Some Red Oregano Genotypes in Albania

Red oregano (Origanum vulgare L. subsp. vulgare) is native to the mountainous slopes of Albania, thriving at altitudes ranging from 400 to 1300 m above sea level. The aerial components of oregano have been found to address a spectrum of health concerns. However, this subspecies presents intriguing characteristics that require comprehensive exploration and analysis. This study extensively analyzes the ex −situ collection of various genotype populations of red oregano in Albania. Essential oils were extracted by employing the hydrodistillation method. At the same time, their chemical analyses were carried out using gas chromatography coupled with a flame ionization detector (GC−FID) and gas chromatography coupled with a mass−spectrometer detector (GS−MS). We employed two statistical techniques, namely hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA), which allowed for a comprehensive examination of the relationships within the data set and more profound insights into the compositional patterns and interrelationships within the essential oils to be gained. The results revealed significant qualitative distinctions at the intraspecific level, particularly for sesquiterpenes, of populations originating from seven diverse geographic locations. The study’s findings enhance our understanding of the chemical composition of Albania’s red oregano and its chemical variation among different populations, which will potentially contribute to identifying the most suitable clones for breeding programs within red oregano populations.

Multivariate analysis of the phytochemical composition and antioxidant properties in twenty-five accessions across three Achillea species

This study explored the chemical composition, antioxidant activity, and total phenol content of aerial parts from 25 accessions of three Achillea species (Achillea wilhelmsii C. Koch, Achillea vermicularis Trin., and Achillea tenuifolia Lam.). The plants were collected from various natural habitats across Iran, encompassing regions such as Central, Western, Southern, Northern, Western, and Northwestern parts of the country. Subsequently, they were grown together under field conditions. The study revealed significant variation in essential oil yields among accessions of A. wilhelmsii, ranging from 0.01 to 0.107%, A. vermicularis with a range of 0.075 to 1.5%, and A. tenuifolia showing a variation of 0.1 to 2%. The study utilized Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis, revealing 75, 49, and 75 compounds in the essential oils of A. wilhelmsii, A. tenuifolia, and A. vermicularis, respectively. Major components included camphor, 1,8-cineole, anethole, α-pinene, and phytol in A. wilhelmsii, 1,8-cineole, camphor, levo-carvone, and δ-terpinene in A. vermicularis, and β-cubebene, elixene, β-sesquiphellandrene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, and δ-terpinene in A. tenuifolia. The essential oil compositions of A. wilhelmsii and A. vermicularis were predominantly characterized by oxygenated monoterpenes, whereas that of A. tenuifolia was characterized by sesquiterpenes. Cluster analysis grouped accessions into three clusters, with A. tenuifolia forming a distinct group. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) triplot (62.21% of total variance) confirmed these results and provided insights into compound contributions. Furthermore, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the accessions of three species were assessed over 2 years. A. tenuifolia exhibited the highest levels in both categories, with statistically significant linear regression between antioxidant activity and total phenol content for A. tenuifolia and A. wilhelmsii. These findings emphasize significant phytochemical diversity within Achillea species, positioning them as promising natural sources of antioxidants. Further exploration and selection of specific accessions within each species are crucial for unlocking their medicinal potential and supporting cultivation and conservation efforts.

Chemical variability and insect repellent effects of lemon catnip essential oil and related phytochemicals against Cimex lectularius L

Plants are sources of natural products that reflect the ecological interactions that shaped their secondary metabolism. Among those, phytochemicals with insect repellent activity have shown potential to be part of integrated pest management programs. In this study, we performed an initial screening of the repellent activities of five commercially available essential oils, as well as the essential oil of lemon catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora Dumoulin ex Lej.) and related natural products against the common bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.). Additionally, we studied the effects of two different growing locations (Upper Deerfield and Pittstown, state of New Jersey, United States) on the chemical composition of three lemon catnip lines (commercial lemon catnips Richters and Jelitto, and lemon-scented catnip line CN5). The chemical composition of the essential oils was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and the repellent activity was assessed by the petri dish method. Cinnamon bark, clove buds, citronella and geranium essential oils were as effective as N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), the gold standard of insect repellents, against bed bugs after one hour of exposure in vitro. The essential oil of lemon catnip and its major compounds citronellol and geraniol were also as repellent as DEET using the same test. Citral shows promising short-term repellency but is inferior to geraniol and citronellol for extended duration of repellency. As for the chemical variability of lemon catnip lines in different growing locations, CN5 line was not significantly affected by the different locations, while both commercial lines Richters and Jelitto had significantly higher proportions of geraniol when grown in Upper Deerfield. Richters lemon catnip produced more nepetalactone in its essential oil when cultivated in Pittstown. This study is the first report of the activity of lemon catnip essential oil as an insect repellent and emphasized the importance of ecological conditions for the production of natural products for pest control applications.

Chemical Composition of Essential Oils from Natural Populations of Artemisia scoparia Collected at Different Altitudes: Antibacterial, Mosquito Repellent, and Larvicidal Effects.

The current study aimed to evaluate the presence of chemical variations in essential oils (EOs) extracted from Artemisia scoparia growing at different altitudes and to reveal their antibacterial, mosquito larvicidal, and repellent activity. The gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis of A. scoparia EOs revealed that the major compounds were capillene (9.6-31.8%), methyleugenol (0.2-26.6%), β-myrcene (1.9-21.4%), γ-terpinene (1.5-19.4%), trans-β-caryophyllene (0.8-12.4%), and eugenol (0.1-9.1%). The EO of A. scoparia collected from the city of Attock at low elevation was the most active against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria (minimum inhibitory concentration of 156-1250 µg/mL) and showed the best mosquito larvicidal activity (LC50, 55.3 mg/L). The EOs of A. scoparia collected from the high-altitude areas of Abbottabad and Swat were the most repellent for females of Ae. aegypti and exhibited repellency for 120 min and 165 min, respectively. The results of the study reveal that different climatic conditions and altitudes have significant effects on the chemical compositions and the biological activity of essential oils extracted from the same species.

Chemical Composition Variation in Essential Oil and Their Correlation with Climate Factors in Chinese Prickly Ash Peels (Zanthoxylum armatum DC.) from Different Habitats.

Essential oils are secondary metabolites in plants with a variety of biological activities. The flavor and quality of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. are mainly determined by the essential oil components in the Chinese prickly ash peels. In this study, the correlation between climate change in different regions and the content of essential oils of Z. armatum was investigated using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and multivariate statistical analysis. The Z1-24 refers to 24 batches of samples from different habitats. A total of 145 essential oils were detected in 24 batches of samples, with the highest number of terpene species and the highest content of alcohol. The relative odor activity (ROAV) values identified nine main flavor compounds affecting the odor of Z. armatum. Linalool, decanal, and d-limonene were the most critical main flavor compounds, giving Z. armatum a spicy, floral, oily, and fruity odor. The results of hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) classified Z5 into a separate group, Z2 and Z7 were clustered into one group, and the rest of the samples were classified into another group. Correlation analysis and path analysis showed that temperature and precipitation were the main climatic factors affecting essential oils. Comparisons can be made with other plants in the genus Zanthoxylum to analyze differences in essential oil type and content. This study contributes to the identification of Z. armatum quality, promotes the accumulation of theories on the effects of climatic factors on essential oils, and enriches the site selection and breeding of Z. armatum under similar climatic conditions.

Essential oil variation of Achillea filipendulina populations in farm condition

ABSTRACT Achillea filipendulina is a native aromatic plant with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. This research aimed to determine and compare the essential oil content and composition of different populations of this plant in farm condition. Seeds provided by the Natural Resources Gene Bank of Iran were sown in a field experiment over two years. Essential oils from the aerial parts of all populations, at full flowering stage, were obtained by hydro-distillation and analysed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The oil yields ranged from 0.13% to 1.20%. Twenty-six compounds were identified with 1,8-cineole (2.0–73.5%), santolina alcohol (14.2–35%) and borneol (0.6–20.4%) as major components. Cluster analysis divided all accessions into two clusters. The main compounds in cluster 1 (two populations) were santolina alcohol, borneol, cis-chrysanthenyl acetate, bornyl acetate and α-pinene. The oils in Cluster 2 contained borneol, cis-chrysanthenyl acetate and high amount of 1,8-cineole (22.6–73.5%) as main components.

Biostimulants Improve Plant Performance of Rosemary Growth in Agricultural Organic System

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is an evergreen and a xerophytic shrub that is frequently employed in culinary, decorative, and industrial applications. It shows significant variations in biomass and essential oil (EO) yield due to effects of biotic and abiotic factors. Biostimulants are widely used in agriculture, and in organic agricultural systems, they may contribute significantly to the stability and/or to the increase in crop yields, ensuring respect for the environment. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of different types of biostimulants on the yield performance of rosemary. Four commercial formulations of biostimulants based on Eklonia maxima, Ascophyllum nodosum, fulvic acids, and protein hydrolysates were used for the tests. Water was used as a control. Six applications were performed. At harvest, several morphological and productive parameters were determined. All parameters were affected by biostimulant application. The highest fresh and dry yields were obtained with the application of fulvic acids (13.1 t ha−1 of fresh biomass and 4.3 t ha−1 of dry biomass) and protein hydrolysates (13.6 t ha−1 of fresh biomass and 4.4 t ha−1 of dry biomass) with values 60% higher than that of the control. Regarding the EO content in the dry biomass, the highest value (1.72% v/w) was found in control plants, whilst the lowest (1.14%) was observed in plants treated with fulvic acids. In the case of the EO yield, the lowest value (46.5 kg ha−1) per unit area was found in the control. The application of Eklonia maxima and protein hydrolysates produced the highest EO yield values, 65 kg ha−1 and 66.5 kg ha−1, respectively. This study highlights the use of biostimulants to increase the yield performance of rosemary when grown in an organic agricultural system.

Essential oil variation in Melissa officinalis L. cultivated under industrial field conditions: effects of different harvesting times and plant materials

Melissa officinalis L. is a cosmopolitan aromatic and medicinal plant from the Lamiaceae family, which is necessary for pharmaceutical and cosmetic production. To evaluate the impact of different harvesting times and plant materials on the essential oil content and composition of M. officinalis 4-year-old plants, the present study was conducted in Fars province, Iran, under industrial field conditions. A randomized factorial experiment with three replications was used. Each replication contained six treatments [3 harvesting of M. officinalis × 2 treatments (shade drying + fresh state)]. Hydrodistillation was used to obtain the essential oils from each treatment, which were subsequently analyzed using GC-FID and GC-MS. The results demonstrated a significant influence of harvesting times and plant materials on the essential oil content and composition of M. officinalis. The average essential oil content was 0.028% to 0.095% (w/w). At different harvest times, the fresh plant yielded a higher content of essential oil compared to the dry plant. The number of chemical constituents in the essential oils was influenced by different harvesting times and plant materials. The predominant and common constituents in all harvested plant materials were the oxygenated monoterpenes geranial (28.7-43.2%) and neral (12.9-30.9%). Based on the major compounds, the essential oils from different harvesting times and plant materials were categorized into two chemotypes: chemotype I (geranial/thymol) and chemotype II (geranial/neral). It is recommended that drying operations not be used as a post-harvest processing method to achieve the highest essential oil yield from M. officinalis.

Chemical variability and antioxidant activities of spontaneous and cultivated Rosmarinus officinalis essential oils according to the geographical origin of their exploited organs

ABSTRACT The present study described the variation of the chemical composition of different organ essential oils from cultivated and spontaneous Rosmarinus officinalis collected from some regions of Southern Tunisia at the flowering and the vegetative phases. Antioxidant activities were evaluated using DPPH• radical-scavenging activity and reducing power. Essential oils were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC/FID and GC/MS. Twenty-nine compounds were identified representing from 88.7% to 99.3% of the total essential oils. Five chemotypes were assigned to different organ essential oils (camphor, camphor/borneol/α-terpineol/α-eudesmol, camphor/borneol/α-terpineol, camphor/borneol/bornyl acetate/α-eudesmol and camphor/borneol/α-terpineol/caryophyllene). Furthermore, the essential oils presented interesting antioxidant potential in DPPH• radical-scavenging (IC50 = 0.093–0.623 mg/ml) and Fe3+ reducing power (EC50 = 0.121–0.523 mg/ml) assays. Understanding the chemical composition of essential oils in relation to environmental factors and plant organs is a crucial quality criterion for their marketing and helps to maximize their potential application.

Seasonal variation of essential oil from Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae) and insecticidal potential against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Murraya koenigii is a plant with exploited pharmacological potential and wide traditional use in Asian culture. This research investigated the chemical composition and seasonal variation of essential oil constituents of M. koenigii cultivated in the city of Goiânia, Goiás, region under climatic influence of the Cerrado domain. The larvicidal potential of these essential oils against Aedes aegypti was investigated. The constituents were evaluated by Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). Climatological information and phenological conditions were also considered. Samples grouped into chemically similar sets were used in bioassays to investigate larvicidal activity. The results show the essential oil characterized by the majority presence of β-phellandrene, z-caryophyllene, α-pinene, sabinene and isodaucene. The phenological stage had more influence on the chemical composition of the essential oil than climatic factors. All essential oil samples were effective against Ae. aegypti, with no significant change in lethal concentrations.

Effect of Altitude, Environment and Soil Parameters on Morphological Characteristics and Yield of Essential Oil in Elsholtzia communis

Elsholtzia communis an aromatic herb found cultivated that has been consumed as a vegetable spice and been used as traditional medicine for the treatment of various ailments like cold, cough, headache, fever and menstrual disorder since time immemorial by many tribes of the North-Eastern states of India. The aim of this study was to know the morphological growth and yield of essential oil variations impacted by the altitude, climate characteristics and soil variations. For which 50 population of plants were selected in each of the four different altitude sites ranging from 551 m to 1433 m msl that was considered. Morphological differences between the sites of selected parameters were analyzed using One-way ANOVA performed in R platform at 1% (p < 0.01) and 5% (p < 0.05) confidence interval and the morphological growth of the plant showed significant differences in term of p-value < 0.05. Further correlation coefficient test was done between essential oil yield and environmental parameters that revealed the positive correlations against its essential oil yield. Yield of 2.3±0.12% was found highest in lower altitude of Lengpui site against 1.39±0.26% in higher altitude of Hmuifang. Henceforth, it can be acknowledged from the results that E. communis can be further taken up for enhanced cultivation practices provided the requirement of enough irrigation along with the soil amendments for the particular altitudinal based requirements which will lead to the higher yielding aspects of essential oil of Elsholtzia communis.

Evaluation of basil (Ocimum basilicum) accessions under different drought conditions based on yield and physio-biochemical traits

BackgroundBasil is one of the most famous herbs, which has broad usage as a fresh vegetable and therapeutic and pharmaceutical services. The main abiotic stress limiting basil production globally is drought. As a result, appropriate drought screening-which effectively separates high-yielding but drought-sensitive genotypes from drought-tolerant genotypes-is necessary for the optimal selection of high-yielding basil cultivars under drought stress conditions. So, a split plot experiment with three replications based on a completely randomized design were carried out in a pot under field conditions for this investigation. Water levels (full irrigation or control, moderate stress, and severe stress) were assigned as main plots, while 22 basil accessions were given as sub-plots. In this study, leaf yield as well as physio-biochemical traits had measured on accessions.ResultsOur results revealed large variation in yield, essential oil (%), protein, proline, chlorophyll, total phenol and flavonoids traits across the 22 accessions. The percentage of leaf yield reduction in moderate drought stress than normal conditions showed that G1 (−6.5%), G17 (−7.05%), G20 (−9.01%), and G12 (−10.9%) accessions had the least changes, respectively. Although in severe drought stress than normal conditions, the G1 (−32.01%), G12 (−33.12%), G4 (−33.24%), G7 (−34.11%), and G17 (−34.93%) accessions had the least amount of change in plant leaf yield, respectively. Furthermore, the highest yield reduction occurred in moderate and severe stress conditions in G18 (−25.36%) and G8 (−42.98%) accessions, respectively. Cluster analysis based on the ward method in both conditions (moderate and severe drought conditions) placed the accessions in three groups, and accessions were identified as tolerant, whose average traits in that group were higher than the total average. The principal component analysis also showed that in moderate drought conditions, the first two components explained about 95.28% of the total variation, while in severe drought conditions, these two components explained about 96.37% of the total variation.ConclusionsThe different multivariate analyses (cluster analysis, PCA, mean comparison) were used to identify tolerant and sensitive accessions based on all traits. The accessions G3, G4, G6, and G7 were found to be tolerant to stress, while G10, G15, G16, and G20 were found to be sensitive to drought. These accessions are a useful step in producing drought-tolerant, high-yielding accessions and can be utilized in breeding programs for basil.

Chemical Variability of Essential Oils from Corsican Hops and Highlighting Their Influence on Hops' Aroma.

Essential oils from wild Corsican hops have never been described before. Following selective harvesting and extraction of plant material, chemical analysis was performed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Subsequent quantitative analysis demonstrated significant inter-stations variability due to pedoclimatic conditions. These singularities produce organoleptic differences, especially within Italian hops, which are the current benchmark for the Mediterranean hops' population. Corsican wild hops are no exception. Accordingly, three olfactive bouquets were identified by a panel of selected and trained sensory analysts: woody herbaceous ginger notes, herbaceous citrus notes, and common notes. These bouquets appeared to be correlated to pedoclimatic parameters mentioned earlier such as altitude and proximity to the sea. A very rare and appreciated bouquet was associated with high levels of zingiberene in hops growing at moderate altitude and relatively far from the coastline. This study shows the importance of growing sites and pedoclimatic conditions to produce hops with the desired organoleptic notes during the beer making process and provides detailed identification of essential oils from Corsican wild hops.

Essential oil variability of Thymus persicus (Ronniger ex Rech.f.) Jalas (Lamiaceae) during in vitro regeneration and ex situ domestication

ABSTRACT Thymus persicus (Lamiaceae) is a range-restricted endemic medicinal and aromatic plant from northwest of Iran. Due to the medicinal importance and over-exploitation of the plant from its natural habitats, conservationand ex situ cultivation of the plant is needed. In the present study, essential oil variability of the plant during its in vitro conservation including in vitro regenerated plant (RP) and acclimated plant (AP) was assessed by GC-FID and GC-MS, and compared with those of growing wild plant (WP). In total, 44, 25 and 25 compounds representing 98.5%, 98.7% and 98.1% were identified in the oils of WP, RP and AP, respectively. The major identified components in the oils were 4,8-β-epoxy-caryophyllene (2.3–10.7%), α-terpineol (9.5–39.2%), linalool (5.7–15.7%) and thymol (2.6–32.8%). In vitro RP with the highest content of thymol had the greatest distance with WP. The AP was also significantly dominated with a large difference in α-terpineol.

Phytochemical diversity within and among Sardinian populations of the endemic Teucrium marum L. (Lamiaceae) is determined by ecological factors

Wild aromatic plants present high intra- and inter-population chemical polymorphisms which are of great ecological and economic interest; however, the factors influencing the phytochemical diversity of aromatic plants remain still unexplored for many species. Here, Teucrium marum L. (Lamiaceae) has been studied, a plant endemic to the western Mediterranean islands, very well-known from the phytochemical point of view but scarcely investigated regarding the ecological factors that influence its phytochemical diversity within and among populations. The specific aims were to: 1) define the chemical composition variability of its essential oils; 2) determine its inter- and intra-population chemical variability; and 3) evaluate whether the elevation, climatic factors and/or the soil substrate determined the phytochemical variability of T. marum along a gradient from coastal to mountain wild populations on the island of Sardinia (Italy). Fresh T. marum aerial parts were randomly collected from ten individuals in six different localities in Sardinia: three coastal and three mountainous. Dried leaf samples were hydrodistillated using a classical Clevenger apparatus to obtain the corresponding essential oils. The composition of each essential oil was chemically characterised and analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Ninety compounds were identified: among the others, the two compounds that mainly characterised the essential oils of the studied populations, dolichodial and (E)-β-caryophyllene, are of great economic interest. Statistical analyses showed significant differences in phytochemical essential oil composition among and within the studied populations, which clustered following a geographical pattern rather than a simple climatic or edaphic grouping. Taken together the results here shown shed light on the environmental and geographical conditions that determine the chemical variability of essential oils in T. marum, highlighting a clear coastal vs mountain clustering, which has an ecological and economic relevance, especially for the potential utilization of dolichodial as an environmental-friendly insecticide.

Chemical composition, seasonal variation and antiaging activities of essential oil from Callistemon subulatus leaves growing in Egypt

Callistemon is an aromatic genus of flowering plants belonging to family Myrtaceae. The essential oils of C. subulatus leaves were collected in four seasons and analyzed using GC/MS. The oils demonstrated monoterpenes as the predominant class. Eucalyptol was the main component in all seasons; summer (66.87%), autumn (58.33%), winter (46.74%) and spring (44.63%), followed by α-pinene; spring (31.41%), winter (28.69%), summer (26.34%) and autumn (24.68%). Winter oil, the highest yield (0.53 mL/100g), was further investigated for its inhibitory activity against enzymes associated with ageing; elastase and acetylcholinesterase. It remarkably inhibited elastase and acetylcholinesterase with IC50 values of 1.05 and 0.20 µg/ml, respectively. A molecular docking study was conducted for the major oil components on the active sites of target enzymes. Eucalyptol revealed the best binding affinity for both enzymes. C. subualtus oil could be used as supplement for management of ageing disorders like skin wrinkles and dementia.

Phytochemical diversity within a plant population of Nepeta crassifolia species: A rich source of nepetalactone in Iran

AbstractInvestigation of genetic diversity between and within populations is the first step in plant breeding programs. The present study focused on the phytochemical variation of essential oils of half‐sib families within a plant population of Nepeta crassifolia species, collected from north of Tehran province, Iran. Air‐dried aerial parts of several half‐sib progenies were water distilled to extract their essential oils. Quantification and qualification of the essential oils constituents were carried out using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Dried plant materials, yielded from 0.09% to 0.73% (v/w) of essential oils. In half‐sib families between 9 and 19 compounds were observed. In all of the studied families the extracted oils were predominated by oxygenated monoterpenes, and regarding the main phytochemical components, three chemotypes were recognized in the studied population. In most of the half‐sib families, 4aα,7α,7aβ‐nepetalactone isomer was dominant composition (38.7%–87.6%), while in two families 4aα,7α,7aα‐nepetalactone isomer (41.6%) and 1,8‐cineol (42.1%) were dominant constitutes. Significant correlation was not seen between biomass, essential oil yield and nepetalactone isomers. Comparing the presented results with essential oil components of other Nepeta species, such as N. cataria, revealed that N. crassifolia can be considered as a commercial source of nepetalactone isomers. Thus, promoting domestication and cultivation of N. crassifolia as industrial and medicinal species should be noticed.

Chemical Variability and Chemotype Concept of Essential Oils from Algerian Wild Plants.

The chemical compositions of eleven wild species of aromatic and medicinal plants indigenous to Algeria, including Thymus, Mentha, Rosmarinus, Lavandula, and Eucalyptus, were analyzed. The identification of the chemical composition of each oil was conducted using GC-FID and GC-MS capillary gas chromatography. The study investigated the chemical variability of the essential oils based on several parameters. These included the impact of the vegetative cycle on oil composition, variations among subspecies of the same species, variations among species within the same genus, the influence of environmental factors on composition variations within a species, chemo typing, and the genetic factors (such as hybridization) contributing to chemical variability. The concepts of chemotaxonomy, chemotype, and chemical markers were examined to understand their limitations and emphasize the importance of regulating the use of essential oils derived from wild plants. The study advocates for an approach that involves the domestication of wild plants and screening their chemical compositions according to more specific standards for each commercially available oil. Lastly, the nutritional implications and the variability of nutritional impact based on the chemical composition of the essential oils will be discussed.

Variations in Essential Oils from the Leaves of Cinnamomum bodinieri in China.

Cinnamomum plants are rich in natural essential oils, which are widely used as materials in the fragrance, insecticidal, antibacterial agent, pharmaceutical, and food industries; however, few studies have investigated the essential oil components of Cinnamomum bodinieri. Therefore, this study investigated the diversity of essential oils from the leaves of 885 individual C. bodinieri plants across 32 populations in five provinces. Essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation, and then qualitative and quantitative analyses of the compounds were performed by GC-MS and GC-FID. A total of 87 chemical constituents were identified in the essential oils, including 33 monoterpenes, 48 sesquiterpenes, and six other compounds. The average oil yield was 0.75%, and individual oil yields ranged from 0.01% to 4.28%. A total of 16 chemotypes were classified according to variations in the essential oil chemical constituents of C. bodinieri, among which the camphor-type, citral-type, and eucalyptol-type were dominant. Moreover, the borneol-type, cymol-type, elemol-type, methylisoeugenol-type, and selina-6-en-4-ol-type were reported in C. bodinieri for the first time. The yield and principal components of the essential oils were mainly affected by altitude, temperature, and sunshine duration, among which altitude had the most significant effect; thus, low-altitude areas are more suitable for the synthesis and accumulation of essential oils. Based on the different characteristics of the essential oils in the leaves of C. bodinieri, several excellent populations and individuals were identified in this study. Moreover, the findings provide a foundation for breeding superior varieties and studying essential oil biosynthesis mechanisms in the future.

Essential Oil Variability of Azorean Cryptomeria japonica Leaves under Different Distillation Methods, Part 2: Molluscicidal Activity and Brine Shrimp Lethality

This study reports on the in vivo molluscicidal activity and Artemia salina lethality of Azorean Cryptomeria japonica leaf (CJL) essential oils (EOs) obtained by hydrodistillation (HD) and water-steam distillation (WSD) techniques, especially in light of the recent focus on the use of forestry and wood industry residues in a sustainable world economy. Molluscicidal activity was performed during several life stages of Radix peregra by the immersion method, under laboratory conditions. A first screening through a single-dose bioassay revealed that both EOs were highly active towards eggs, juveniles and adult snails (ca. 100% mortality). Concentration- and time-toxicity assays were carried out only on adult snails to determine the lethal parameters (LC50;90 and LT50;90). The LC50 values were 33 and 62 µg/mL for EO–WSD and EO–HD, respectively, after 48 h. The LT50 of EO–WSD required only 21 h for both 16 h and continous exposure periods, while that of EO–HD was slighty superior (21.8–25.6 h). Although not significant, EO–WSD was also slightly more toxic against A. salina than EO–HD (LC50 = 98 and 115 µg/mL after 24 h, respectively). In conclusion, Azorean CJL EOs, which are rich in α-pinene (mostly EO–WSD), have huge potential to be used as safe raw materials for the development of natural molluscicide products to control snails responsible for transmitting fascioliasis.