Energy Intake Variables Research Articles

Individual variability in compensatory eating following acute exercise in overweight and obese women

BackgroundWhile compensatory eating following acute aerobic exercise is highly variable, little is known about the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the alterations in exercise-induced eating behaviour.MethodsOverweight and obese women (body...

Nutrient intake variability induced by processing of food diary data: A pilot study

Accurate assessment of nutrient intake of the population represents one of the main challenges in food and nutritional science. Evaluation of food diary is a complicated process, involving choosing the appropriate nutritional database and having well qualified personnel (coders) to work with it. The aim of this study was a comparison of nutrient intake data obtained from one weighed 5-day food diary processed by five master degree students, studying nutrition, focusing on coding errors. Nutrition evaluation was done by Prodi 5.7 Expert Plus computer programme and IBM SPSS Statistics 20 for statistical analysis. Results of our pilot study show that variability of calculated data induced by food coding lonesome is acceptable. Nevertheless putting other errors into account, results can be misleading. On a five-day level macronutrients intake variability is between 5 and 15%, while energy intake variability is within 6%. Uncommon food items and complex composition of the meal have the major impact on observed high standard deviations on a separate meal level. In conclusion the main reason of food coding errors is inaccuracy and incorrect identification of specific food items.

Set-Point Theory and Obesity

Obesity is a consequence of the complex interplay between genetics and environment. Several studies have shown that body weight is maintained at a stable range, known as the "set-point," despite the variability in energy intake and expenditure. Additionally, it has been shown that the body is more efficient protecting against weight loss during caloric deprivation compared to conditions of weight gain with overfeeding, suggesting an adaptive role of protection during periods of low food intake. Emerging evidence on bariatric surgery outcomes, particularly gastric bypass, suggests a novel role of these surgical procedures in establishing a new set-point by alterations in body weight regulatory physiology, therefore resulting in sustainable weight loss results. Continuing research is necessary to elucidate the biological mechanisms responsible for this change, which may offer new options for the global burden of obesity.

Functional body composition: insights into the regulation of energy metabolism and some clinical applications

The application of advanced methods and techniques and their continuous development enable detailed body composition analyses (BCAs) and modeling of body composition at different levels (e.g., at atomic, molecular, organ-tissue and whole body level). Functional body composition integrates body components into regulatory systems (e.g., on energy balance). Regulation of body weight is closely linked to the mass and function of individual body components. Fat mass is part of the energy intake regulatory feedback system. In addition, fat-free mass (FFM) and fat mass are both determinants of resting energy expenditure (REE). Up to 80% of the variance in energy intake and energy expenditure is explained by body composition. A deviation from normal associations between body components and function suggests a metabolic disequilibrium (e.g., in the REE-FFM relationship or in the plasma leptin-fat mass association) that may occur in response to weight changes and diseases. The concept of functional body composition adds to a more sophisticated view on nutritional status and diseases, as well as to a characterization of biomedical traits that will provide functional evidence relating genetic variants.

Energy intake variability in free-living young children

It has been suggested that young children regulate their daily energy intake very closely with highly stable day-to-day total energy intake. This hypothesis was developed on the basis of an...

Can variability in energy intake be attributed to one meal versus another?

Objective: Stability of meal patterns has been suggested to be associated with lower body weight. To examine the stability of energy contribution by meal type, estimates of within‐ (WIV) and between‐(BIV) individual variation (WIV) in energy intake by meal was compared to determine which meal accounts for the largest variation in daily energy intake among young adults.Methods: Mean ± SD and estimated coefficients of variation (CVw, CVb) in energy intake for self‐defined breakfast (B), lunch (L), dinner (D), and snack (S) meals were calculated using a mixed effects regression model. Intake was measured using 7 day food records (FR) entered into NDSR for analysis. Subjects were 105 18–19 yo college students.Results: Mean daily energy intake was 2180 ± 847 kcal, of which S contributed 20% (438 ± 507 kcal). CVw and CVb for B, L, D, S were 93/57, 74/31, 68/31, and 101/55%, respectively. Ratios of WIV and BIV were 1.6, 2.4, 2.2, and 1.8 for B,L, D, S, respectively.Conclusion: S were associated with the greatest CVw and D with the least, however, the higher WIV/BIV ratios for L and D suggest that there may be much more variation in these meals. All ratios exceeded unity, suggesting there is greater variation within individuals than between individuals.

Free Fatty Acids Have More Potent Effects on Gastric Emptying, Gut Hormones, and Appetite Than Triacylglycerides

The effects of fat on gastric emptying (GE), gut hormones, and energy intake are dependent on digestion to free fatty acids (FFAs). In animals, small intestinal oleic acid inhibits energy intake more potently than the triacylglyceride (TG) triolein, but there is limited information about the comparative effects of FFA and TG in human beings. We compared the effects of FFA and TG on GE, gut hormone secretion, appetite, and energy intake in healthy males. Nine men (age, 23 +/- 2 y; body mass index, 22 +/- 1 kg/m(2)) were studied on 3 occasions to evaluate the effects of (1) 40 g oleic acid (FFA, 1830 kJ), (2) 40 g macadamia oil (TG, 1856 kJ; both 600-mL oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with 4% milk protein and labeled with 15 MBq (123)I), or (3) 600 mL 4% milk protein (control, 352 kJ), administered intragastrically, on GE, plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide-YY (PYY) levels, appetite perceptions, and subsequent energy intake. GE of FFA was much slower than that of TG (P < .05), with greater retention of FFA, than TG, in the proximal stomach (P < .001). Hunger was less (P < .05), and fullness was greater (P < .05), after FFA when compared with control and TG. Increases in plasma CCK and PYY levels were greater after FFA than TG or control (P < .05). Energy intake tended to be less after FFA compared with TG (control, 4754 +/- 610 kJ; TG, 5463 +/- 662 kJ; FFA, 4199 +/- 410 kJ). FFAs empty from the stomach more slowly, but stimulate CCK and PYY and suppress appetite more potently than TG in healthy human beings.

Day-to-day reproducibility of, and relationships between, energy intake, gastric emptying and plasma CCK and GLP-1 in healthy lean males.

Gastric emptying and intragastric distribution of a meal, and gastrointestinal hormones, including cholecystokinin (CCK) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), play an important role in appetite regulation. Healthy, lean, young males have widely been used in studies evaluating energy intake. It has, however, been reported that there is marked inter-individual variability in energy intake in this group. Whether there is significant intra-individual variation in acute energy intake after a nutrient preload, and, if so, this relates to changes in gastric emptying and gastrointestinal hormone release, is unclear. We hypothesised that appetite/energy intake after a nutrient preload would be reproducible and associated with reproducible patterns of gastric emptying and gastrointestinal hormone release. 15 healthy males consumed a glucose preload (50 g glucose in 300 ml water; 195 kcal) on 3 separate occasions. Gastric emptying and intragastric meal distribution (measured by 3D ultrasound), plasma CCK and GLP-1 and appetite perceptions were evaluated over 90 min, after which energy intake from a cold, buffet-style meal was quantified. Energy intake (kJ) and amount eaten (g) showed excellent agreement between visits (intraclass correlation coefficient, r i >0.8), while for macronutrient distribution, reproducibility was moderate to good (0.54< r i <0.77). Furthermore, patterns of gastric emptying, intragastric meal distribution and appetite perceptions did not differ (all P <0.05), and areas under the plasma CCK and GLP-1 curves also showed excellent agreement ( r i >0.8), between days. Therefore, in healthy males, patterns of gastric emptying and gastrointestinal hormone secretion are highly reproducible, when measured repeatedly on separate occasions, and associated with reproducible energy intakes.

Interstitial Glucose Level Is a Significant Predictor of Energy Intake in Free-Living Women with Healthy Body Weight

The relative contribution of circulating glucose to meal-to-meal variability in energy intake is not known. In 8 free-living young (median age 26.5 y) women with healthy body weight (median BMI 22.2 kg/m(2)), we measured glucose in the interstitial space by an automated monitoring procedure (continuous glucose monitoring system, CGMS) for up to 3 consecutive days (mean 706 glucose readings per subject). We examined the association between interstitial glucose (which lags blood glucose by approximately 10 min), self-reported hunger, satiety, desire for a meal, and nutrient intakes. Participants reported consuming a typical Western diet (59% carbohydrate, 27% fat, 14% protein). Median (interquartile range) interstitial glucose was 5.2 mmol/L (4.7-5.8). Using repeated-measures techniques in univariate analyses, desire for a meal (r = 0.45, P < 0.0001), hunger (r = 0.37, P = 0.0002), satiety (r = -0.40, P < 0.0001), low interstitial absolute mean glucose up to 25 min before eating (r = -0.23, P = 0.02), and a large decline in glucose between 40 and 5 min before eating (r = -0.17, P = 0.08) were all associated with meal energy intake. In multivariate regression analyses, desire for a meal (P < 0.0001) and hunger (P = 0.02) were the strongest independent contributors to meal energy intake, whereas absolute mean glucose measured in the period 15 to 0 min before eating was marginally significant (P = 0.08). In conclusion, absolute glucose level is a significant predictor of energy intake in nonobese women. However, desire for a meal and hunger are quantitatively more important, emphasizing the importance of both glucose signals and nonglucose (internal or environmental) factors in within-subject variability in energy intake. In addition, the CGMS may have utility in understanding the role of circulating glucose in energy regulation in free-living subjects under a wide range of different nutritional conditions.

Energy density, diet composition and palatability: influences on overall food energy intake in humans

This paper considers the role of energy density (ED), diet composition and palatability in the control of energy intake (EI) in humans through several related considerations: (i) the relationship between ED and diet composition, (ii) the relationship between ED, diet composition and EI, (iii) the relationship between palatability and EI, (iv) the relationship between ED, palatability and EI, (v) the importance of postingestive factors in influencing palatability in the longer term, (vi) the contribution of sensory and nutritional factors to dietary hyperphagia and (vii) the implications these considerations have for people living their normal lives in their natural environment. The main factors influencing ED are the fat and water content of foods. Energy density does elevate EI, especially in short-term studies where it can account for >40% of the variance in EI. In real life, ED accounts for only approximately 7% of the variance in EI. This is because the determinants of EI are multifactorial and also because the short-term effects of ED on EI do not translate into the longer term. We argue that part of the longer term amelioration of short-term effects of ED on EI is due to learned compensation, based on the postingestive consequences of consuming familiar food that differ in ED. More energy-dense foods tend to be more palatable but we learn to consume them in smaller portion sizes. In the longer term, the perceived palatability of a food is strongly influenced by the postingestive consequences of eating it. This effect can override sensory factors alone. This implies that nutrient mimetics, if used continuously, would not be as efficacious as initially supposed and that their ad hoc use may undermine the stability of learned appetites and satieties for foods with different EDs and contribute to the poor weight control capability exhibited by consumers at large.

Portion size of common foods predicts energy intake among preschool-aged children

This study evaluated the relationship of food intake behaviors to total energy intake among children aged 2 to 5 years old (N=5,447) who participated in the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, 1994–1996, 1998 (CSFII 94–96, 98). Food intake behaviors examined were portion size for 10 commonly eaten foods, number of eating occasions per day, and number of foods consumed per day. Using regression models, we examined these eating behaviors as predictors of energy intakes with adjustment for body weight. Eating behaviors and body weight were positively related to energy intake, together explaining 38% to 39% of the variability. Portion size alone accounted for 17% to 19% of the variance in energy intake, whereas body weight predicted only 4%. Feeding recommendations should highlight the importance of age-appropriate portion sizes and provide guidance on the frequency of eating and number of foods consumed.

Social Dominance and Energy Reserves in Wintering Woodland Birds

To understand animals' tactics for surviving the winter season, we need to know how they manage their energy reserves. Fat reserves in small birds in winter generally increase with starvation risk. Studies have documented higher fat reserves in response to various sources of variability in energy intake or expenditure. Using three woodland species, Carolina Chickadee (Poecile carolinensis), Tufted Titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor), and White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis), we tested the prediction that the more predictable food supply of socially dominant animals enables them to maintain lower energetic reserves than subordinate conspecifics. We inferred dominance from age and sex categories. The hypothesis was fully supported. In all three species, dominants carried relatively lower fat reserves than subordinates.

VARIABILITY OF ENERGY INTAKE WITHIN AND BETWEEN TWO 14 DAY COLLECTION PERIODS

1343 Day to day food consumption can vary greatly in individuals. Due to the vanable nature of energy consumption, the number of days needed to adequately and reliably assess dietary intake has been debated. To our knowledge, there have been no studies determining the optimal number of days needed to accurately assess energy intake. The purpose of this study was to compare two periods of fourteen-day energy intake and determine if there was significant changes or variability in energy intake throughout the fourteen days and between the two periods (S1-1, S1-2). The study included 42 moderately overweight (mean BMI 29.5±2.6) subjects (25 females, 17 males) participating in the first four months of a 16 month energy balance study. Subjects' energy intake was measured by plate waste in grams at a university-dining hall at meal times and by recall procedures between meals. Data analysis examined mean averages of energy, carbohydrate, fat, and protein for the first three days, middle eight days, and final three days of each collection period by ANOVA. In addition, data for the first 14-day and second 14-day period were compared by ANOVA. (Table)TableValues are means±standard deviation The results indicate there were no significant differences between periods within each 14-day data collection, nor were there differences between the first and second data collection period. In conclusion, energy intake as measured by plate waste procedures appears to reliably report subjects' intakes from period to period. It also suggests a data collection period shorter than 14 days may be able to accurately assess dietary consumption. Supported by NIH DK49181

Determinants of Dietary Intake in a Sample of White and Mexican-American Children

Objective To assess the influence of several potential psychosocial determinants on children's eating behavior. Participants Three hundred fifty-one Mexican-American and non-Hispanic white children (mean age=4.4 years old at baseline) participated in the San Diego Study of Children's Activity and Nutrition for up to 2.5 years. Methods Child's eating behavior was described by 3 dependent variables: total energy, percentage energy from fat, and sodium intake per 1,000 kcal. Dietary information was collected 4 days a year using a 24-hour food intake record, which was a combination of direct observation and interviews with food preparers. The 35 predictor variables from child, parental, demographic, and environmental domains were collected by behavioral observation, interviewer-administered questionnaires, and physical measurements. Statistical analyses Bivariate and regression analyses via mixed linear models were performed. Results Variables from the children's domain (such as skinfold thickness and weight) had the strongest associations with energy intake; parental variables (such as fat avoidance behavior and prompts to increase children's food intake) were associated with child's percentage energy from fat and sodium intake. In regression analyses, parsimonious subsets of variables accounted for 46% of variance in energy intake (3 variables), 40% of the variance in percentage of energy from fat (4 variables), and 44% of variance in sodium intake per 1,000 kcal energy (1 variable) in between-subject variance components. Conclusions Fat and sodium intake of children may be improved by improving parents’ nutrition habits and by having parents encourage children to eat a healthful diet. Few modifiable correlates of children's energy intake were identified. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:1282–1289.

Ad libitum food intake in humans after manipulation of glycogen stores

It is controversial whether food intake in humans is under day-to-day regulation to maintain constant body glycogen stores. In eight white males with a mean (+/-SD) age of 30 +/- 4 y, body weight of 82 +/- 20 kg, and percentage body fat of 22 +/- 5%, exercise and diets were used to produce either high (HG) or low glycogen (LG) stores in a randomized crossover design. After each treatment a vastus lateralis muscle biopsy was obtained. Subsequent ad libitum food intake was measured with an automated food-selection system during 2 d in a respiratory chamber. Despite a 46 +/- 21% difference in muscle glycogen between the two treatments, ad libitum 2-d food intakes (energy, weight, or macronutrients) were similar between treatments (HG: 23.80 +/- 4.67 MJ/d; LG: 21.20 +/- 6.73 MJ/d). However, energy intake on the second day of ad libitum feeding was negatively correlated with carbohydrate balance on the first day, adjusted for the effect of total energy intake and treatment. Adjusted carbohydrate balance on day 1 only explained 9% of the variance in energy intake on day 2. The 24-h respiratory quotient on the first day after treatment was higher after the HG than after the LG treatment: 0.94 +/- 0.04 and 0.88 +/- 0.07 (P < 0.001). The findings suggest that 1) body glycogen stores play at most a minor role in short-term food intake regulation, and 2) in the short term, imbalances in glycogen stores are corrected by adjustments of macronutrient oxidation rates.

Within- and between-person variation in energy intake during twin pregnancy: Estimating the number of days required to describe energy intake with desired accuracy

Pre-natal energy intake has been purported to affect pregnancy outcomes. Yet, few studies have supported this assumption. The failure to detect these relationships may be the result of large day-to-day variation in the dietary intake of individuals which can attenuate correlation coefficients between diet and other variables. Although some data is available on the energy intake variability of singleton women, little is know about the energy intake of women pregnant with twins. This study examined the variability in energy intake in a group of 11 women pregnant with twins in order to obtain estimates of the number of dietary recalls needed to limit the attenuation of correlation coefficients between energy intake and pregnancy outcome indicators. Energy intake was assessed by 4 non-consecutive, telephoned 24-hour dietary recalls during 24 and 30 weeks gestation. Subjects used the Boston Nutrition Associates' two dimensional food portion aid to assist in portion size estimations. Nutrient analysis was performed using the Minnesota Nutrient Database System, version 2.4. Statistical analyses included analysis of variance and paired t-tests. Women consumed 2,123 ± 375 kcal (range: 1,632–2,574) or 35.3 kcal per kg pre-pregnancy weight (range: 25.5–44.4), which is 87% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for singleton pregnancy (no RDA has been established for twin pregnancy). No significant difference was detected between caloric consumption at 24 and 30 weeks gestation or between weekdays and week-end days. Assuming the other variable is perfectly reliable, 22 and 9 days of dietary recalls would be required to limit attenuation of a correlation coefficient by 10% and 20%, respectively. These estimates will assist researchers in designing studies with sufficient power to detect relationships between diet and outcome variables in similar populations.

Genetic influences on daily intake and meal patterns of humans

The heritability of nutrient intake was investigated with 109 identical and 86 fraternal adult twin pairs who were paid to maintain 7-day food intake diaries. Both classical analysis of heritability and linear structural modeling revealed significant additive genetic influences on body size, height and weight, and body fatness (body-mass index). Significant heritabilities were also found for the amount of food energy ingested daily, as well as its macronutrient, alcohol, and water content. Linear structural modeling analysis showed that 65% of the variance in energy intake was attributable to heredity. In addition, the pattern of intake, meal frequency, size, and meal macronutrient, alcohol, and water composition, were also found to have strong heritabilities. Linear structural modeling indicated that 44% of the variance in meal frequency and 65% of the variance in meal size was attributable to heredity. However, shared, familial environment had no significant impact on the levels or pattern of intake in adulthood. These results indicate that not only body size but also the pattern and amounts of nutrients ingested by humans in natural environments are strongly influenced by the immediate environment and heredity, but not at all by the familial environment.

Day-to-day variation in energy and nutrient intake: Evidence of individuality in eating behaviour?

A study of within-subject variation in the reported food intakes and food selections of 29 adults participating in the Beltsville One-Year Dietary Intake Study suggests that individuals possess characteristic levels of day-to-day variation in intake. Application of Bartlett's test of homogeneity of variance indicated heterogeneity of within-subject variance in energy intake and in selected nutrients controlled for energy. Comparisons of estimates of within-subject variation derived from a split sample of days revealed the relative stability of individuals' magnitudes of day-to-day variation in energy and nutrient intake over time. For some nutrient variables, a large proportion of the observed heterogeneity in within-subject variation could be explained by a linear relationship between subjects' standard deviations and their mean intake levels. However, heterogeneity persisted when subjects' coefficients of variation were compared, suggesting that mean intake differences are insufficient to explain the observed differences in subjects' levels of day-to-day variation. The magnitude of observed variation in an individual's food intake and food selecton from one day to the next appears to be a meaningful descriptor of that individual's intake behaviour.

Malnutrition: Some measurement and policy issues

The ‘energy’ and ‘protein’ norms published by the FAO have been widely misused for assessing the nutritional status of a population in spite of warnings against such use by the FAO itself, The paper points out that the process governing variations in daily energy balances in human beings is not yet fully understood and a satisfactory theoretical frameworkfor it is yet to emerge. Nevertheless, there is some evidence that the process is stochastic-stationary and autoregressive and there is a wide variability in energy intakes between otherwise similarly situated healthy individuals and even in the same individual over time. Many of the widely used procedures for assessing nutritional status, by classifying all individuals in a population as malnourished who have intakes below a single average norm for the population as a whole, thereby ignoring intra and inter individual variance in intakes and requirements, will misclassify individuals (i.e., adequately nourished as malnourished and vice-versa) to varying degrees. This misclassification bias need not cancel out for the population as a whole and there is a danger in overestimating the proportion of truly malnourished.