Vapor Liquid Research Articles

Neural activity analysis of depressive disorder model mice using the Toyohashi probe

Abstract Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most chronic disease and life-threatening 
illnesses globally. However, mainstay medications do not provide sufficient relief for 
depressive patients with MDD. Thus, there is an urgent need for the development of analysis 
methods that allow drug screening and observation of phenotypes. We developed a tiny 
microneedle electrode block module called the Toyohashi probe, which can be inserted into 
a mouse brain with minimal invasiveness using the vapor–liquid–solid method. Photo
response was measured in the primary visual cortex of Nrf2 knockout (KO) mice using the 
Toyohashi probe. We then successfully identified characteristic electrophysiological 
phenotypes, such as abnormal excitability of neurons and higher firing frequency and spikes, 
in Nrf2 KO mice. In conclusion, our new microneedle electrode can be used in vulnerable 
disease model mice to record stable neuronal activity stably in vulnerable disease model 
mice and observe characteristic phenotypes as indicators for drug efficacy.

Enhancement of Semen Cryopreservation from Native Thai Bulls Through Moringa oleifera Leaf Extract Supplementation

Cryopreservation of native Thai bull semen often results in significant post-thaw quality reduction, underscoring the need for effective cryoprotective strategies. This study investigated the effect of Moringa oleifera leaf extract (MOLE) as an antioxidant supplementation by incorporating four MOLE concentrations (0–1.5% [w/v]) into a standard semen extender, followed by cryopreservation using liquid nitrogen vapor freezing. Data were analyzed using a randomized complete block design with Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05). Post-thaw analysis of semen revealed that 1 mg/mL MOLE significantly enhanced total sperm motility, progressive sperm motility, sperm viability, and sperm plasma membrane integrity compared to the control and other MOLE concentrations (p < 0.05). This concentration also improved the amplitude of lateral head displacement and curvilinear velocity and reduced malondialdehyde levels in semen samples (p < 0.05), indicating reduced lipid peroxidation. Higher MOLE concentrations negatively impacted semen quality. In conclusion, supplementation with 1 mg/mL MOLE markedly improved post-thaw semen quality and reduced lipid peroxidation, suggesting its potential as an antioxidant for enhancing reproductive outcomes in native Thai bulls.

Cryopreserved sperm does not affect larval ontogeny and quality in Rhamdia quelen.

Fish sperm cryopreservation is an important technique for optimizing juvenile production in aquaculture stations and laboratories and contributing to the conservation of endangered species. Despite its benefits, the cryopreservation process can cause cellular damage, affecting spermatozoa quality and offspring viability. This study aimed to evaluate the larval development of jundiá Rhamdia quelen originating from cryopreserved sperm. Larvae were obtained from artificial reproduction using oocyte samples from four females combined with fresh (Control) or cryopreserved/thawed sperm. The semen was diluted in the cryoprotective solution (1:3 ratio) consisting of skimmed milk powder (5%), methanol (10%), and fructose (5%), and was packaged into 0.25mL straws. The straws were then stored and cooled in liquid nitrogen vapor for 18h. The straws were individually warmed in a water bath at 25°C for 10s to thaw the samples. The experiments were performed in triplicates. Sperm quality, fertilization, hatching, and larval development were evaluated. After larval hatching, six larval collections were performed (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25days after hatching), and 15 larvae were sampled per collection per treatment. Cryopreservation reduced sperm motility (70.48 ± 7.70 fresh to 41.36 ± 4.80 cryopreserved semen), progressivity (3874 fresh to 2505 cryopreserved semen), and beat cross frequency (55.83 ± 155 fresh to 50.22 ± 190 cryopreserved semen). Increased the percentage of sperm with abnormal morphology and increased most sperm pathologies. Furthermore, the fertilization rate was lower in the cryopreserved group (63.1 ± 18, and 83.72 ± 7.59 for fresh semen), while hatching was not different between groups (65.3 ± 18.05 fresh, 48.89 ± 21.77 cryopreserved semen) Otherwise, the initial larval development morphology showed no difference in the appearance of structures such as the presence of the vitelline structure, pigmentation pattern, development of the anal pore, embryonic membrane, eye, barbells, notochord flexion, and fin rays, for both treatments. There was no significant difference in the frequency of structures between larvae from fresh and cryopreserved/thawed sperm, revealing a similar developmental pattern in both treatments. In conclusion, the cryopreservation protocol affects sperm quality; however, those sperm able to fertilize the oocytes originate normal larvae with regular larval development of R. quelen up to 25days old.

Numerical analysis of nucleation effects on cloud cavitation using multiscale Euler–Lagrange model

This study develops a hybrid multiscale Euler–Lagrange model to investigate the unsteady characteristics of cloud cavitation around a hydrofoil under different water qualities. A homogeneous mixture model is implemented for macroscopic cavity simulations, tracking the vapor–liquid interfaces. In the Lagrangian framework, the dynamics and motion of nuclei and bubbles are resolved. By incorporating more physically accurate conversion criteria to couple the two frameworks, the cavitation model is modified to ensure consistency with the assumption that cavitation inception arises from the expansion of nuclei. Numerical results, obtained under different size distributions of nuclei populations, align well with experimental data, validating the capability of the multiscale model to account for the effects of water quality. They also offer detailed insights into the influence of cavitation flows on microscale bubble behavior, particularly highlighting the significant role of reentry jets in bubble generation and motion. The results underscore the critical interplay between small-scale bubble dynamics and macroscopic cavitation flows. In addition, a statistical analysis of the size distribution of microbubbles reveals a distribution law consistent with experimental observations. This study provides a robust framework for investigating the comprehensive effects of water quality on cloud cavitation flows, offering a promising avenue for future research in this domain.

Comparative analysis of the cryopreservation protocols efficiency of goat sperm (review)

The aim of this work is to analyze scientific and practical data on protocols for cryopreservation of sperm of breeding goats and the effectiveness of their use. Numerous studies have established that seasonality is a characteristic reproductive function, with the greatest sexual activity observed in the autumn-winter period [1]. Goat sperm has the following species-specific features: sperm membranes contain a high level of unsaturated fatty acids, while the cytoplasm of cells, on the contrary, contains an insignificant amount of antioxidant compounds. In connection with these spermatozoa, especially strong lipid peroxidation induced by free radicals (hydroxyl radicals, UK peroxide), which cause structural damage to sperm membranes during freezing-thawing or storage in a cold state at 2-4 ° C [25, 26]. Taking these facts into account, an effective cryopreservation protocol, according to the results of numerous studies, is additional filtration of sperm for effective removal of accessory sex gland secretion, use of a diluent without egg yolk, cooling at 4-5 °C for 1.5-4 hours, packing in 0.25 - 0.5 ml straws. When using 0.5 ml straws, freezing is carried out in two stages: in liquid nitrogen vapor at a height of 4 cm for 5 minutes, then further immersion in liquid nitrogen. When using 0.25 ml straws, freezing is carried out in three stages: perforated glasses are placed 16 cm above the liquid nitrogen level for 2 minutes, then 4 cm for 3 minutes, after which they are completely immersed in liquid nitrogen for long-term storage.

Fluorine-Free Nanofiber/Network Membranes with Interconnected Tortuous Channels for High-Performance Liquid-Repellency and Breathability.

The excessive use of fluoride in fibrous membranes poses significant bioaccumulative threats to the environment and human health. However, most existing membranes used in protective clothing and desalination systems show high fluorine dependence and inevitable trade-offs between liquid repellency and breathability. Herein, fluorine-free bonded scaffolded nanofiber/network membranes are developed using the electro-coating-netting technique to achieve high-performance liquid-repellency and breathability. By manipulating the stretching of electrospun jets and the polarization of electrets, rough and electrostatic wetting nanofibers are obtained as scaffolds, on which long-chain alkyl precursors are coated to assemble 2D networks consisting of nanowires with diameters of ∼42 nm and bonding points. The resultant fluorine-free membranes exhibit small pore sizes of ∼460 nm, highly interconnected tortuous channels, a water contact angle of ∼138°, and elastic elongation up to 300%, thereby providing both high-performance liquid repellency (125 kPa) and vapor permeability (4206 g m-2 d-1), making them effective for use in protective clothing and desalination. This work could inspire innovative design of ecofriendly nanofibrous materials for high-performance filtration and separation.

A practical methodology for incorporating volume-translated equation of states in isochoric-isothermal phase equilibrium calculations for liquid phase pressure prediction

Accurately predicting the phase behavior and properties of reservoir fluid plays an essential role in the simulation of petroleum recovery processes. Similar to the inaccurate liquid-density prediction issue in the isobaric-isothermal (PT) phase equilibrium calculations, an inaccurate pressure prediction issue can also be observed in isothermal-isochoric (VT) phase equilibrium calculations which involves a liquid phase. In this work, a practical methodology is proposed to incorporate a volume-translated equation of state in VT phase equilibrium calculations for more accurate pressure predictions. For this purpose, we adopt the state-of-art volume translation model recently proposed by Abudour et al. (Fluid Phase Equilib 349:37–55 2012, Fluid Phase Equilib 349:37–55, 2013). Single liquid phase calculations for 18 compounds and two hydrocarbon mixtures are conducted to demonstrate the soundness of the proposed methodology and evaluate the accuracy of pressure predictions. The calculated pressures by VT calculations with volume translated PR-EOS are compared to the actual pressures. The calculation results demonstrate that, by incorporating Abudour et al. (2012, 2013) volume translated PR-EOS models into the VT-based phase equilibrium calculation algorithm, the accuracy of pressure prediction in the single liquid phase region for both pure substances and mixtures can be significantly improved. Lastly, we apply the proposed algorithm to the two-phase VT phase equilibrium calculations for a ten-component oil sample MY10 which contains only normal alkanes. We numerically correct the pressure by applying the Abudour et al. VTPR-EOS to both the liquid phase and vapor phase. The pressures calculated by different phases become different. The pressures predicted based on the liquid phase are shifted downwards significantly, which leads to more accurate pressure predictions. To our knowledge, this issue is rarely investigated to incorporate the volume translation concept in VT phase equilibrium calculations.

Study on Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium of CaCl2 Solutions with Ionic Liquids: Modeling and Molecular Interaction Analysis

Study on Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium of CaCl₂ Solutions with Ionic Liquids: Modeling and Molecular Interaction Analysis

APD-L1-facilitated theranostic and tumor microenvironment remodeling of pancreatic cancer via docetaxel-loaded phase-transformation nanoparticles triggered by low-intensity pulsed ultrasound

Early diagnosis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is challenging because of its depth, which often leads to misdiagnosis during ultrasound examinations. The unique PDAC tumor microenvironment (TME) is characterized by significant fibrous tissue growth, and high interstitial pressure hinders drug penetration into tumors. Additionally, hypoxia and immune suppression within the tumor contribute to poor responses to radiotherapy and chemotherapy, ultimately leading to an unfavorable prognosis. In this study, aPD-L1-modified docetaxel and perfluoropentane-loaded liquid‒vapor phase-transformation lipid nanoparticles (aPDL1-DTX/PFP@Lipid) were synthesized and had an average diameter of 61.63 nm with 84.3% antibody modification. We demonstrated that the nanoparticles (NPs) exhibited excellent PDAC-targeting capabilities both in vitro and in vivo. Upon exposure to low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) stimulation, the NPs underwent a phase transformation to form microbubbles with substantial molecular ultrasound diagnostic effects, and combined treatment resulted in a tumor growth inhibition rate of 88.91%. This treatment strategy also led to the infiltration of CD8+ T cells, the downregulation of Treg cells, the promotion of M1 macrophage polarization, the inhibition of fibrosis to reduce tumor stromal pressure, and the facilitation of perfluoropentane (PFP) gasification to release O2 and improve tumor hypoxia. In conclusion, aPD-L1-modified liquid‒vapor phase-transformation nanoparticles loaded with docetaxel (DTX) and PFP were successfully combined with ultrasound for the molecular diagnosis and targeted treatment of PDAC. aPDL1-DTX/PFP@Lipid could reshape the PDAC TME, offering a new approach for ultrasound-mediated diagnosis and treatment with promising clinical applications.Graphical

Performance Evaluation of PρT-SAFT, PρT-PC-SAFT, PC-SAFT, and CPA Equations of State for Predicting Density, Thermal Expansion Coefficient, Isothermal Compressibility, Isobaric Heat Capacity, Speed of Sound, and Saturated Vapor Pressure of Three Pure Ethylene Glycols and Their Mixtures

Ethylene glycols are a group of versatile industrial solvents with broad applications across various sectors. Accurate thermodynamic modeling of these compounds is essential for enhancing their utilization and optimizing industrial processes. Among the advanced models available, the Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (SAFT) type equation of state (EoS) stands out for its effectiveness in capturing the thermodynamic behavior of complex fluids. This study employs the PρT-SAFT, PρT-PC-SAFT, PC-SAFT, and CPA EoSs to model pure monoethylene glycol (MEG), diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG), and their mixtures. Furthermore, the predictive capabilities of these models are critically evaluated for polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400). The performance of the PρT-SAFT, PρT-PC-SAFT, PC-SAFT, and CPA EoSs was evaluated for predicting key thermodynamic properties, including density, thermal expansion coefficient, isothermal compressibility, isobaric heat capacity, speed of sound, and saturated vapor pressure, for pure MEG, DEG, TEG, and PEG 400. Among the models, the PρT-SAFT demonstrated superior accuracy in modeling their properties. Subsequently, the volumetric properties and vapor–liquid equilibrium data of binary mixtures of MEG, DEG, and TEG were predicted using the same EoSs, without incorporating any binary interaction parameters. Under these conditions, the PρT-SAFT achieved the highest accuracy. Furthermore, predictions of the volumetric properties for the ternary mixture of MEG, DEG, and TEG also indicated that the PρT-SAFT outperformed the other models. The overall average absolute deviation percentages for the PρT-SAFT, PρT-PC-SAFT, PC-SAFT, and CPA EoSs across all examined thermodynamic properties and systems were 7.0, 8.2, 22.2, and 30.2, respectively, confirming the robustness of the PρT-SAFT.

Self-catalyzed vapor–liquid–solid growth of GaS nanobelt for nano-optoelectronic applications

GaS, with the largest bandgap of group III–VI van der Waals semiconductors, is a potential building block of optoelectronic applications. In addition, one-dimensional structures, such as nanobelts, are preferable for integration into future nano-optoelectronic devices. Here, we demonstrated self-catalyzed vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) growth of a GaS nanobelt by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. Ga-rich growth conditions caused Ga particles to be generated in the initial growth step. The nanobelt grew from a Ga particle, which acted as a catalyst. The fabricated nanobelt photodetector showed a high ON/OFF ratio and the dark current was under the detection limit. Moreover, compared with an exfoliated GaS flake photodetector, it had one order of magnitude higher responsivity. These outstanding photoresponse properties indicate that self-catalyzed VLS growth of GaS nanobelts is a promising bottom-up integration approach for nano-optoelectronic applications.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Gas-Phase Studies of Spin-Spin Couplings in Molecules

This paper overviews gas phase experiments with respect to one fundamental part of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. Indirect spin-spin coupling is an important parameter of NMR spectra and is observed as the splitting of spectral signals. A molecule containing two different magnetic nuclei (e.g., hydrogen HD, HT, or DT) exhibits this interaction in an external magnetic field measured as the spin-spin coupling parameter, nJ(NN′). Modern quantum chemical methods allow the precise calculation of spin-spin coupling, but it is never easy because nJ(NN′) is modified by temperature and intermolecular interactions. Accurate calculations can be performed only for small isolated molecules. NMR spectroscopy can deliver measurements of spin-spin couplings for isolated molecules if nJ(NN′) parameters are observed in the gas phase as a function of density. The extrapolation of such measurements to the zero-density limit permits nJ0(NN′) determination free from intermolecular interactions. The latter technique can also be applied to liquid vapors in molecules like acetonitrile or water. Spin-spin couplings across one chemical bond (1J0(NN′)) are the largest and most important for theoretical modeling. The present review reports numerous 1J0(NN′) parameters recently measured by multinuclear NMR spectra of gaseous samples.

Isobaric Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium of Binary Mixtures of Acetophenone and 1-Phenylethanol at 3.00, 5.00, 10.00, and 15.00 kPa

Isobaric Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium of Binary Mixtures of Acetophenone and 1-Phenylethanol at 3.00, 5.00, 10.00, and 15.00 kPa

Computer‐aided ionic liquids design and molecular insight for chloromethane dehydration

AbstractIn the process of butyl rubber production, excessive water content in chloromethane has a significant impact on the conversion and molecular weight distribution of the products. In this work, a computer‐aided ionic liquids design method was used for solvent design in the chloromethane dehydration process. The generate‐and‐test method was utilized to solve the mixed‐integer nonlinear programming problem formed in the design process. A multilayer perceptron was trained to predict the surface tension of ionic liquids. Quantum chemical calculations and molecular dynamics simulations were employed to test the dehydration performance of several designed ionic liquids. A candidate was selected for experimental synthesis and characterization. The impact of different ionic liquids on the vapor–liquid equilibrium of water was measured to confirm the feasibility, which indicates that the designed ILs exhibit a better dehydration potential compared to the basement solvent, 1‐Ethyl‐3‐methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate. Anions play a leading role in the dehydration process.

Separation Process for Methanol–Methylal–Methyl Formate Multicomponent System in Polyformaldehyde Production Waste Liquid: Modeling and Techno-Economic Analysis

The vapor–liquid equilibrium (VLE) data of the ternary system methanol–methyl formate–methylal was measured at atmospheric pressure using a modified Rose equilibrium kettle with vapor–liquid double circulation method. The experiment data were correlated with the NRTL, UNIQUAC, and Wilson activity coefficient model equations. The results shown that the root mean square deviation (RMSD) between the calculated and simulated values of the three models followed the order: UNIQUAC ≈ NRTL < Wilson, and except for the RMSD (T) in the range of 0.4–0.5, the others are less than 0.01. In addition, the NRTL model was selected to link with Aspen Plus software to simulate the separation process of polyformaldehyde (POM) waste liquid. The simulation results show that the methyl formate in POM waste stream can be purified by simple distillation, while the methylal separated from the POM waste liquid, which was affected by factors like the azeotropic behavior of binary components, necessitates a complex distillation process. Under optimal operating conditions, the recovery yield of methyl formate through direct distillation can reach 99.7%, with an economic benefit of 6960.1 CNY per ton of waste liquid. Although the economic benefit of the multi-component distillation reach 7281.2 CNY, the increase in the number of equipment and the complexity of the process have negative impacts.

Computational Method for Determining the Excess Chemical Potential Using Liquid-Vapor Phase Coexistence Simulations.

Molecular dynamics simulations are a powerful tool for probing and understanding the theoretical aspects of chemical systems and solutions. Our research introduces a novel method for determining the excess chemical potential of non-ideal solutions by leveraging the equivalence between the chemical potential of the vapor phase and liquid phase. Traditional approaches have relied on bulk simulations and the integration of pair distribution functions (g(r)), which are computationally intensive to obtain accurate results. In contrast, our method utilizes a liquid-gas system, where determining the vapor pressure allows for a quick and accurate calculation of the excess chemical potential relative to a reference system, e.g., pure solvent. This approach significantly reduces computational effort while maintaining high accuracy and precision. We demonstrate the effectiveness of this method using a simplified Lennard-Jones model, although the method is broadly applicable to a wide range of systems, including those with complex interactions, varying concentrations, and different temperatures. The reduced computational demands and versatility of our approach make it a valuable tool for studying non-ideal solutions, including ionic solutions in molecular simulations.

Exploring the Thermodynamics and Dynamics of CO2 Using Rigid Models

Understanding the behavior of carbon dioxide (CO2) under varying thermodynamic conditions is essential for optimizing processes such as Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and supercritical fluid extraction. This study employs molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with the EPM2 and TraPPE-small force fields to examine CO2 phase behavior, structural characteristics, and transport properties across a temperature range of 228–500 K and pressures from 1 to 150 atm. Our findings indicate a good agreement between simulated and experimental liquid–vapor coexistence curves, validating the capability of both force fields to model CO2 accurately in a wide range of thermodynamical conditions. Radial distribution functions (RDFs) reveal distinct interaction patterns in liquid and supercritical phases, while mean squared displacement (MSD) analyses show diffusivity increasing from 5.2×10−9 m2/s at 300 K to 1.8×10−8 m2/s at 500 K. Additionally, response functions such as the heat capacity effectively capture phase transitions. These findings provide quantitative insights into CO2 phase behavior and transport properties, enhancing the predictive reliability of simulations for CCS and related industrial technologies. This work bridges gaps in the CO2 modeling literature and highlights the potential of MD simulations in advancing sustainable applications.

A Proof-of-Concept for Safety Evaluation of Inhalation Exposure to Known Respiratory Irritants Using In Vitro and In Silico Methods.

There is increased interest in developing non-animal test systems for inhalation exposure safety assessments. However, defined methodologies are absent for predicting local respiratory effects from inhalation exposure to irritants. The current study introduces a concept for applying in vitro and in silico methods for inhalation exposure safety assessment. Three in vitro systems, representing the upper (MucilAir™-nasal epithelial tissue) and lower (A549 cells and human precision-cut lung slices) human respiratory regions, were exposed to six respiratory irritants. These irritant exposures were conducted as liquid droplets, aerosol, or vapors, and samples were collected over 24 h. Cytotoxicity, cytokine release, epithelial resistance, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial membrane potential were measured. To determine the human relevance of in vitro exposures, airway surface depositions were predicted by simulating airborne concentrations equivalent to the Cramer class III inhalation threshold of toxicological concern limit of 0.47 mg/person/day using an in silico model. A > 100-fold margin of exposure was calculated comparing lowest concentrations showing in vitro effects to in silico simulated values. While further studies are needed, this manuscript presents a basic requirement for employing non-animal methods to inform inhalation exposure safety assessments by combining in vitro and in silico assays.

Inverse Leidenfrost impacting drops

We investigate the spreading of falling ambient-temperature Newtonian drops after their normal impact on a quartz plate covered with a thin layer of liquid nitrogen. As a drop expands, liquid nitrogen evaporates, generating a vapour film that maintains the drop in levitation. Consequently, the latter spreads in inverse Leidenfrost conditions. Three drop-spreading regimes are observed: (i) inertio-capillary, (ii) inertio-viscous, and (iii) inertio-viscous-capillary. In the first regime, although the drop expansion is essentially driven by a competition between inertial and capillary stresses, it is also affected by viscous effects emerging from the vapour film, which ultimately favours the development of a shear flow within the drop. Interestingly, vapour film effects become marginal in both the second and third regimes, allowing the drop to undergo biaxial extension primarily. More specifically, in the inertio-viscous scenario, the expansion is driven by the balance between inertial and biaxial extensional viscous stresses in the drop. Finally, inertia, capillarity and drop viscosity are all relevant in the third regime. These physical mechanisms are underlined through a mixed approach combining experiments with multiphase three-dimensional numerical simulations in light of spreading dynamics analyses, energy transfer and scaling laws. Our results are rationalized in a two-dimensional diagram linking the drops’ maximum expansion and spreading time with the observed spreading regimes through a single dimensionless parameter given by the square root of the capillary number (the ratio of the viscous stress to the capillary stress).

Investigation of hygrothermal behavior of a novel bio-based panel: Experiment and numerical simulation

Straw composites, owing to their low carbon footprint and favorable hygrothermal properties, are becoming a promising alternative insulation material for buildings in order to promote energy saving and occupants’ comfort. However, the heat and moisture characteristics of straw composites at the material scale and under steady-state condition are insufficient for a thorough assessment of their performance as a building component in actual service conditions. This study focused on the hygrothermal performance of a novel bio-based wall made with a rice straw–alginate composite material. The temperature and relative humidity profiles within the wall were monitored under various boundary conditions. The inverse analysis method was proposed to determine liquid water permeability. In in a dynamic test, compared with the model of coupled heat-and-moisture transfer (CHM), the transient heat transfer model predicted temperature profiles with higher errors and underestimated total heat flux by up to 30.6%. Also, under the dynamic condition, the CHM model with liquid water transport showed decreased mean absolute errors by 61%, 57% and 8% at depths of 28 mm, 36 mm and 64 mm, respectively, compared with those predicted by the CHM model without liquid water transport. Both vapor transport and liquid transport seemed to be essential when modeling thermal transfer and moisture transfer through the wall.