Cs Vapor Research Articles

On the spatial distribution and evolution of ultrafine particles in Barcelona

Abstract. Sources and evolution of ultrafine particles were investigated both horizontally and vertically in the large urban agglomerate of Barcelona, Spain. Within the SAPUSS project (Solving Aerosol Problems by Using Synergistic Strategies), a large number of instruments was deployed simultaneously at different monitoring sites (road, two urban background, regional background, urban tower 150 m a.s.l., urban background tower site 80 m a.s.l.) during a 4 week period in September–October 2010. Particle number concentrations (N>5 nm) are highly correlated with black carbon (BC) at all sites only under strong vehicular traffic influences. By contrast, under cleaner atmospheric conditions (low condensation sink, CS) such correlation diverges towards much higher N/BC ratios at all sites, indicating additional sources of particles including secondary production of freshly nucleated particles. Size-resolved aerosol distributions (N10–500) as well as particle number concentrations (N>5 nm) allow us to identify three types of nucleation and growth events: (1) a regional type event originating in the whole study region and impacting almost simultaneously the urban city of Barcelona and the surrounding urban background area; (2) a regional type event impacting only the regional background area but not the urban agglomerate; (3) an urban type event which originates only within the city centre but whose growth continues while transported away from the city to the regional background. Furthermore, during these clean air days, higher N are found at tower level than at ground level only in the city centre whereas such a difference is not so pronounced at the remote urban background tower. In other words, this study suggests that the column of air above the city ground level possesses the optimal combination between low CS and high vapour source, hence enhancing the concentrations of freshly nucleated particles. By contrast, within stagnant polluted atmospheric conditions, higher N and BC concentrations are always measured at ground level relative to tower level at all sites. Our study suggests that the city centre of Barcelona is a source of non-volatile traffic primary particles (29–39% of N>5 nm), but other sources, including secondary freshly nucleated particles contribute up to 61–71% of particle number (N>5 nm) at all sites. We suggest that organic compounds evaporating from freshly emitted traffic particles are a possible candidate for new particle formation within the city and urban plume.

A simple equilibrium theoretical model and predictions for a continuous wave exciplex pumped alkali laser

The exciplex pumped alkali laser (XPAL) system has been demonstrated in mixtures of Cs vapour, Ar, with and without ethane, by pumping Cs–Ar atomic collision pairs and subsequent dissociation of diatomic, electronically excited CsAr molecules (exciplexes or excimers). The blue satellites of the alkali D2 lines provide an advantageous pathway for optically pumping atomic alkali lasers on the principal series (resonance) transitions with broad linewidth (>2 nm) semiconductor diode lasers. The development of a simple theoretical analysis of continuous-wave XPAL systems is presented along with predictions as a function of temperature and pump intensity. The model predicts that an optical-to-optical efficiency in the range of 40–50% can be achieved for XPAL.

High resolution spectroscopy of Cs vapor confined in optical cells of few-micron thicknesses

We present here the new behavior of Electromagnetically Induced Transparency (EIT), Velocity Selective Optical Pumping (VSOP) and Velocity Selective Excitation (VSE) resonances observed in Cs vapor confined in unique cells with thicknesses L = 1.5λ and L = 6λ. It is shown experimentally that in both cells, the EIT resonance is significantly narrower than would be expected from the ground state dephasing rate due to atomic collisions with the cell windows. The enhanced absorption (fluorescence) narrow VSOP resonance at the closed transition transforms into reduced absorption (fluorescence) one with small increase of atomic concentration or light intensity. A striking difference appears between the VSE resonance broadening due to excited atom thermalization, in L = 6λ and conventional L = 2.5 cm cells.

Review of alkali laser research and development

In this review we present an analysis of optically pumped alkali laser research and development from the first proposal in 1958 by Schawlow and Townes to the current state. In spite of the long history, real interest in alkali vapor lasers has appeared in the past decade, after the demonstration of really efficient lasing in Rb and Cs vapors in 2003 and the first successful power scaling experiments. This interest was stimulated by the possibility of using efficient diode lasers for optical pumping of the alkali lasers and by the fact that these lasers can produce a high quality and high power output beam from a single aperture. We present a review of the most important achievements in high power alkali laser research and development, discuss some problems existing in this field, and provide future perspectives in diode pumped alkali laser development.

Magnetooptical resonances in cells with residual buffer gas in elliptical polarization of radiation

The dependence of the fluorescence intensity of Cs vapor irradiated by elliptically polarized light resonant with the F = 4 → F = 5 transition on the scanned magnetic field has a complex shape — a narrow dip against the background of a broad peak. It is found experimentally that the dip is due to the small component of the magnetic field orthogonal to the direction of the laser beam. A two-level atom model with degenerate angular-momentum states predicts an order of magnitude lower contrast of this dip. The experimentally observed contrast of the dip can be explained by assuming that due to the low buffer-gas pressure in the optical cell, part of the resonant atoms is able to return to the laser beam without thermalized collisions with the wall of the cell, increasing the contrast. In addition, accounting for all optical transitions of the D2-line and the optical pumping of the hyperfine-structure components of the ground state is a fundamental point for the interpretation of the experimental results.

High contrast resonances of the coherent population trapping on sublevels of the ground atomic term

We have detected and analyzed narrow, high contrast coherent population trapping resonances, which appear in transmission of the probe monochromatic light beam under action of the counterpropagating two-frequency laser radiation, on example of the nonclosed three level {\Lambda}-system formed by spectral components of the Doppler broadened D2 line of cesium atoms (in the cell with the rarefied Cs vapor). These nontrivial resonances are determined directly by the trapped atomic population on the definite lower level of the {\Lambda}-system and may be used in atomic frequency standards, sensitive magnetometers and in ultrahigh resolution laser spectroscopy of atoms and molecules.

Laser ablation of CsI: time-resolved Fourier-transform infrared spectra of atomic cesium in the 800–8000 cm^−1 range

Fourier-transform time-resolved spectroscopy of laser-induced breakdown of Cs vapor in a vacuum has been used for the measurement of atomic Cs emission spectra in the 800–8000 cm−1 range with a resolution of 0.02 cm−1. The 6h and 7h levels of Cs are observed. The dipole transition matrix elements (transition probabilities, oscillator, and line strengths) between the observed levels are calculated using quantum defect theory.

Thermal management of fully LTCC-packaged Cs vapour cell for MEMS atomic clock

This paper describes a study of the thermal behaviour of fully packaged Caesium vapour cell developed in the framework of the European collaborative research project called “MEMS atomic clocks for timing, frequency control and communications (MAC-TFC)”. This cell, along with various electronic and optical components, is embedded in a Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramics (LTCC) structure, in order to build a compact MEMS-based atomic clock. Functioning of such atomic clock depends on inner and outer environment of the Cs vapour cell, including parameters such as pressure and temperature of buffer gas. This paper is then devoted to study the thermal behaviour of a fully LTCC-packaged Cs vapour cell according to the ambient temperature change when it is locally temperature controlled. Simulations have been carried out by using analytical modelling and finite element based softwares. Different solutions concerning the LTCC structure such as bridges/suspensions, vacuum environment, metallic coating, as well as the optimal positions of the temperature-control elements have been investigated. Finally, preliminary experiments based on a prototype resulting from this study are presented and an additional solution based on the dynamic adjustment of the set temperature as a function of the ambient temperature is proposed.

Optical pumping and spectroscopy of Cs vapor at high magnetic field

We have measured changes in the ground-state populations of Cs vapor induced by optical pumping at high magnetic field. The $2.7$-T field of our experiments is strong enough to decouple the nuclear and electronic spins, allowing us to independently measure each population. The spatial dependence of the Cs populations in small amounts of buffer gas obeys a simple coupled diffusion model and the relative populations reveal the details of relaxation within the vapor cell. Optical pumping can produce high nuclear polarization in the Cs vapor due to perturbations of the hyperfine interaction during collisions with buffer-gas particles and depending on the pumping transition, radiation trapping can strongly influence the electronic and nuclear polarizations in the vapor.

Measurement of longitudinal and transverse spin relaxation rates using the ground-state Hanle effect

We present a theoretical and experimental study of the resonant circularly-polarized-light-induced Hanle effect in the ground state of Cs vapor atoms in a paraffin-coated cell. The effect manifests itself as a narrow resonance (centered at $B=0$) in the dependence of the optical transmission coefficient of the vapor on the magnitude of an external magnetic field $\stackrel{P\vec}{B}$. We develop a theoretical model that yields an algebraic expression for the shape of these resonances for arbitrary field orientations and arbitrary angular momenta of the states coupled by the exciting light, provided that the light power is kept sufficiently small. An experimental procedure for assessing the range of validity of the model is given. Experiments were carried out on the laser-driven Cs ${D}_{1}$ transition both in longitudinal and transverse field geometries, and the observed line shapes of the corresponding bright and dark resonances give an excellent confirmation of the model predictions. The method is applied for determining the intrinsic longitudinal and transverse relaxation rates of the vector magnetization in the vapor and their dependence on light power.

Angular momentum and two-photon detuning dependence of reflection spectrum on degenerate two-level systems in Cs vapour

The absorption and reflection spectrum of probe light, interacting with a degenerate two-level system of any transition in the Cs D1 line driven by standing-wave, is experimentally studied. The effect that absorption changes from a transparency dip to an absorption peak when the travelling coupling field is replaced by the standing-wave field can only occur in the hyperfine transition Fg↔Fe ⩽ Fg (Fg and Fe are the total angular momentum of the ground and the excited levels respectively), and in this case, a reflection of probe can be generated. It is also examined that the absorption coefficient and reflection efficiency in the transition of Fg > Fe are much higher than that in Fg = Fe. For the transition of Fg < Fe, where coherent population trapping cannot be established, the absorption does not change the sign, and there is no reflection to be observed when the coupling is switched from a travelling to a standing-wave field. As a consequence, only the degenerate two-level systems, where the population is trapped in the ground states, can exhibit steep absorption and reflection of the probe light with a standing-wave coupling. Furthermore, the reflection spectra with an asymmetric profile as the function of one- and two-photon detunings are obtained, which is theoretically explained by the phase mismatch compensation during the process of four-wave mixing in an atomic system. This shows that under the condition of coherent population trapping the nonlinear reflection can be improved with one- and two-photon detunings in a degenerate two-level system.

All solid state ion-conducting cesium source for atomic clocks

Cesium containing glass with solid metal electrodes was used as a Cs atom source in a high vacuum system. A silver anode provides an injection source of highly mobile ions which sweep Cs to the cathode surface, from which they evaporate into the vacuum. Cathode metallization with finger patterns was used leaving bare glass for Cs evaporation. Laser absorption measurements show Cs vapor generation synchronous with an applied DC voltage.

Transfer of spin angular momentum from Cs vapor to nearby Cs salts through laser-induced spin currents

Optical pumping of alkali-metal atoms in vapor cells causes spin currents to flow to the cell walls where excess angular momentum accumulates in the wall nuclei. Experiments reported here indicate that the substantial enhancement of the nuclear-spin polarization of salts at the cell walls is primarily due to the nuclear-spin current, with a lesser contribution from the electron-spin current of the vapor.

High-fidelity modelling of an exciplex pumped alkali laser with radiative transport

The exciplex-pumped alkali laser (XPAL) system has been demonstrated in mixtures of Cs vapour, Ar, and ethane by pumping Cs–Ar atomic collision pairs and subsequent dissociation of diatomic, electronically excited CsAr molecules (exciplexes or excimers). Because of the addition of atomic collision pairs and exciplex states, modelling of the XPAL system is far more complicated than the modelling of the classic diode-pumped alkali laser (DPAL). In this paper, we discuss BLAZE-V time-dependent multi-dimensional modelling of this new laser system including radiative transport and parasitic loss effects. A two-dimensional, time-dependent baseline simulation of a pulsed XPAL is presented and compared to data. Good agreement is achieved on a laser pulse full width at half-maximum and laser pulse rise time. Parametric simulations of pulsed XPAL system configurations similar to that of the baseline case, given both four- and five-level laser operation, are presented in which good agreement is obtained with outcoupled laser energy as a function of absorbed pump energy data. The potential impact of parasitic losses on modelled system configurations is discussed.

Oriented Poly(3-hexylthiophene) Nanofibril with the π−π Stacking Growth Direction by Solvent Directional Evaporation

In this article, the uniaxial alignment of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) nanofibrils with a π-π stacking growth direction in which P3HT chains adopt a flat-on conformation was obtained by solvent directional evaporation using a glass cover slide and a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) sheet to press the P3HT film in a carbon disulfide (CS(2)) atmosphere. By controlling the CS(2) vapor pressure during the film-forming process, we got a well-oriented P3HT film whose order parameter reached as high as 0.97. The orientation of the film was induced by the crystallization nucleation of P3HT and the directional evaporation of the solvent. Under a CS(2) vapor atmosphere, P3HT crystals preferred to adopt the form II modification, which started by nucleation. Owing to the solvent directional evaporation from the center to the margin, P3HT at the center of the sample would precipitate first to induce nucleation. Then the peripheral P3HT would directly diffuse, precipitate, and then adhere to the nucleus to form the uniaxial alignment of P3HT nanofibrils along the direction of solvent evaporation. Furthermore, in the P3HT nanofibrils, the π-π stacking direction of P3HT lamellae was parallel to the crystal growth direction, which would provide an effective path for charge transport.

Microfabrication of cesium vapor cells with buffer gas for MEMS atomic clocks

This paper reports on the Si-glass anodic bonding process to fill micro Cs vapor cells with a buffer gas (Ar or Ne) at a controlled pressure (up to 20 kPa), which is one of the technological key steps to fabricate Cs vapor cells for miniature atomic clocks. In the atmosphere of these gases, the applicable bonding voltage was not high enough to achieve strong bonding because of the electrical breakdown caused by ionization of the gas. To improve the bonding quality, an original two-step anodic bonding method was proposed. The first step of the anodic bonding, which intends to pre-seal the gas in microcells, is carried out in the presence of a buffer gas by applying a voltage lower than the breakdown voltage. Subsequently, the second bonding is performed in air at sufficiently high voltages to improve the sealing quality. By employing optical spectroscopy, it was demonstrated that the cells maintain the buffer gas at an appropriate pressure for atomic clock operation. The accelerated aging tests show that Cs vapor as well as the buffer gas remained in the cells without any significant change in the pressure, which allow us to estimate the lifetime of the cells to be at least 3 years. Further CPT experiments revealed that the buffer-gas pressure change is less than 6.13 × 10 −4 kPa throughout the aging test at 125 °C for more than 3 weeks. These results show that these microcells are appropriate for applications to atomic frequency references.

A solid-mounted resonator-oscillator-based 4.596 GHz frequency synthesis

This paper describes a 4.596 GHz frequency synthesis based on a 2.1 GHz solid mounted resonator (SMR) voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The SMR oscillator presents a chip size lower than 2 mm(2), a power consumption of 18.2 mW, and exhibits a phase noise of -89 dBc/Hz and -131 dBc/Hz at 2 kHz and 100 kHz offset frequencies, respectively. The VCO temperature-frequency dependence is measured to be -14 ppm∕°C over a range of -20°C to 60°C. From this source, a low noise frequency synthesizer is developed to generate a 4.596 GHz signal (half of the Cs atom hyperfine transition frequency) with a phase noise of -81 dBc/Hz and -120 dBc/Hz at 2 kHz and 100 kHz from the carrier. The frequency synthesis output is used as a local oscillator in a Cs vapor microcell-based compact atomic clock. Preliminary results are reported and discussed. To the authors knowledge, this is the first development of a SMR-oscillator-based frequency synthesizer for miniature atomic clocks applications.

Coherent population trapping resonances in Cs–Ne vapor microcells for miniature clocks applications

We report the characterization of dark line resonances observed in Cs vapor microcells filled with a unique neon (Ne) buffer gas. The impact on the coherent population trapping (CPT) resonance of some critical external parameters such as laser intensity, cell temperature, and microwave power is studied. We show the suppression of the first-order light shift by proper choice of the microwave power. The temperature dependence of the Cs ground state hyperfine resonance frequency is shown to be canceled in the 77–80 °C range for various Ne buffer gas pressures. The necessity to adjust the Ne buffer gas pressure or the cell dimensions to optimize the CPT signal height at the frequency inversion temperature is pointed out. Based on such Cs–Ne microcells, we preliminary demonstrate a 852 nm vertical cavity surface emitted laser (VCSEL)-modulated based CPT atomic clock exhibiting a short term fractional frequency instability σy(τ)=1.5×10−10τ−1/2 until 30 s. These results, similar to those published in the literature by others groups, prove the potential of our original microcell technology in view of the development of high-performance chip scale atomic clocks.

Precipitation-hardened ferritic steels for fast neutron reactors

The paper describes precipitation-hardened ferritic steel developed for the core of fast neutron reactors. The effect of the type and amount of hardening oxide phase on the stress-rupture strength and structure of the material at 700°C is examined. The data are extrapolated to 10,000-hour holding to show a stress-rupture strength of 70 to 80 MPa. The radiation resistance of the steel is determined under ion and neutron irradiation to 100 dpa (neutron fluence 2.6 ⋅ 10 23 n/cm 2 ). The steel has high volume stability and low sensitivity of its mechanical characteristics to radiation. The material does not lose its plasticity after the maximum exposure. The corrosion behavior of the precipitation-hardened steel in Na, Li, Pb, and eutectic Pb–Li melts, Pb–Bi alloys, and Cs and Te vapors is investigated. The corrosion resistance of the steel is practically commensurable with or somewhat higher than that of the best reactor steels EP172 and EP450.

Note: An ultranarrow bandpass filter system for single-photon experiments in quantum optics

We describe a combined ultranarrow bandpass filtering setup for single-photon experiments in quantum optics. The filter is particularly suitable for single-photon electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) experiments, but can also be used in several similar applications. A multipass planar Fabry-Perot etalon together with polarization filters and spatial filtering allows 114 dB pump beam suppression, while the signal beam is attenuated by just 4 dB, although both wavelengths are only separated by 0.025 nm (9.2 GHz). The multipass etalon alone accounts for 46 dB suppression while it has a peak transmission of 65%. We demonstrate EIT experiments in Cs vapor at room temperature with probe power in the femtowatt regime using this filter.