Wildlife Value Research Articles

Segmenting Wildlife Value Orientations to Mitigate Human–Wildlife Conflict for Ecotourism Development in Protected Areas

ABSTRACT Ecotourism is increasingly being adopted to improve the livelihoods of local communities and fulfill conservation goals. Many critical actors, including but not limited to governments and conservation organizations, believe that for ecotourism to be successful, local communities must appreciate and support wildlife conservation activities. Without evidence that communities’ value systems are oriented in a manner that aligns with the authorities’ sustainable development and wildlife conservation ideologies, strategies for how to achieve the most benefits for the most people will be based on anecdotes and assumptions. This study investigated residents’ value orientation towards wildlife in the context of Bardia National Park (BNP), Nepal. We surveyed residents from eight buffer zone communities surrounding BNP with a human–wildlife conflict (n = 871). Our findings revealed four distinct clusters of resident WVOs, creating challenges for BNP ecotourism development. Socio-demographic and resource management factors also play critical roles in shaping the sustainable development of BNP ecotourism.

Risks from mercury in anadromous fish collected from Penobscot River, Maine

Levels of total mercury were measured in tissue of six species of migratory fish (alewife, American shad, blueback herring, rainbow smelt, striped bass, and sea lamprey), and in roe of American shad for two consecutive years collected from the Penobscot River or its estuary. The resultant mercury levels were compared to reference doses as established in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Integrated Risk Information System and wildlife values. Mercury concentrations ranged from 4 μg/kg ww in roe to 1040 μg/kg ww in sea lamprey. Sea lamprey contained the highest amounts of mercury for both seasons of sampling. Current health advisories are set at sufficient levels to protect fishers from harmful consumption of the fish for mercury alone, except for sea lamprey. Based upon published wildlife values for mink, otter, and eagle, consumption of rainbow smelt, striped bass, or sea lamprey poses a risk to mink; striped bass and sea lamprey to otter; and sea lamprey to eagle. For future consideration, the resultant data may serve as a reference point for both human health and wildlife risk assessments for the consumption of anadromous fish. U.S. EPA works with federally recognized Tribes across the nation greatly impacted by restrictions on sustenance fishing, to develop culturally sensitive risk assessments.

Bane or Blessing? Reviewing Cultural Values of Bats across the Asia-Pacific Region

Chiroptophobia, or the fear of bats, which encompasses negative perceptions of bats as disease vectors, pests, or harmful creatures associated with evil spirits, represents an important barrier to bat conservation globally. Derived largely from the influence of Western cultural perceptions, it ignores the diverse cultural perceptions of bats from other regions, which have been largely overlooked. To better understand local beliefs and cultural perceptions regarding bats across the Asia-Pacific region, and how they may help design culturally grounded conservation strategies, we conducted a review of publications in the English-language literature documenting cultural value of bats in Asia-Pacific traditions. We discovered 119 bat cultural values in 60 different cultures from 24 countries across the region and found a wide spectrum of reports, which we categorized according to five wildlife value categories and further categorized these values according to positive, neutral, and negative. We found that 62% of the cultures had only positive values, 8% had only neutral values, while 10% had only negative values. This suggests that the Asia-Pacific region and its cultures contain far more positive associations with bats than most Western societies and, as such, offer promising examples and opportunities to promote human-bat coexistence. However, we also discuss how local belief systems may not always align with daily practices or conservation objectives. We suggest employing targeted, culturally grounded and locally contextualized outreach strategies in order to carry out more effective bat conservation and education in Asia-Pacific countries.

The relationship of stakeholders’ social identities and wildlife value orientations with attitudes toward red deer management

ABSTRACT It has been recommended that wildlife management should be tailored to either wildlife value orientations (WVOs) or social identities (SIs) because both can influence stakeholders’ attitudes. However, a comparison of associations of WVOs and SIs with attitudes of stakeholders is lacking in the literature. We examined WVOs and attitudes toward red deer management among 834 individuals, encompassing foresters, hunting tenants, and conservationists (presumed to have strong SIs), as well as citizens, councilors, and forest owners (presumed to have weak SIs). Foresters’ and hunting tenants’ attitudes did not differ, despite the presence of different WVOs among each group, whereas conservationists’ attitudes partly and citizens,’ councilors’ and forest owners’ attitudes were strongly associated with different WVOs. Those with strong SIs should be addressed in terms of self-concepts and group processes. We recommend qualitative research on the SIs of stakeholders and quantitative research on the linkages of SIs and other social-psychological concepts.

Mutualism Wildlife Value Orientations Predict Support for Messages About Distance-Related Wildlife Conflict.

Wildlife value orientations (WVOs) are used to address human-wildlife conflicts by developing value-framed messaging. However, little is known about whether WVOs (i.e., mutualism, domination) are useful in distance-related wildlife safety communication strategies. This study explores the predictive ability of mutualism and domination value orientations on study participants' levels of agreement with distance-related safety messages. Distance-related wildlife safety messages were crafted to appeal to the four WVO typologies (i.e., traditionalist, mutualist, pluralist, and distanced). Undergraduate students were asked to rate their levels of agreement with a series of distance-related messages. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to create domination and mutualism dimension scores. Multiple regressions predicted levels of agreement with each of the messages from domination and mutualism. Study results indicated that in this sample of undergraduate student participants, only mutualism values predicted distance-related wildlife safety message agreement. This information can be used to help frame communications about distance-related wildlife issues.

CITES and beyond: Illuminating 20 years of global, legal wildlife trade

Nature has the potential to provide wide-ranging economic contributions to society – from ecosystem services to providing income to communities via fair trade of resources. Unsustainable trade in wildlife, however, threatens biodiversity and its ability to support communities and a functioning planet. It is therefore important to have clear systems in place for tracing traded wildlife. Monitoring legal wildlife trade in all species is as important as it is for trade in protected species, since flows of the legal trade correlate with, and provide cover for, illegally traded wildlife. The majority of wildlife trade research is focused on species listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The concurrent, considerably larger legal wildlife trade in both CITES and non-CITES-listed species, however, remains unexamined – despite the fact that if mismanaged, it can lead to over-exploitation. Here we analyzed 20 years of data from the UN Comtrade database, aiming to detail the scale, composition, and trends across all taxa of wildlife traded legally, and to indicate opportunities for improvement. From 1997 to 2016 the value of this trade totaled between US$2.9 and 4.4 trillion. Of this, $2.9 trillion wildlife was traded under “specific” codes that specify taxonomic Order and below, while around $1.4 trillion was traded under “broad” codes that declare wildlife to taxonomic Class and above. The top 10 trading nations/territories accounted for 51.4% of the total value of wildlife traded. The top commercial categories for wildlife trade were seafood (82%), furniture (7%), and fashion (furs and hides) (6%). In these three major categories, vague commodity codes such as “Fish”, “Tropical wood”, and “Other furs” were used to declare 23%, 24% and 26% of items traded, respectively – despite encompassing thousands of species. This lack of granularity imperils biodiversity as trade cannot be comprehensively monitored. We recommend a review of what species are traded under these broad code descriptions, and a distillation of codes to taxonomic Family or Genus level in the next HS Code review period, particularly in the pet, traditional Chinese medicine and furniture categories. In addition, interdisciplinary research into legal wildlife trade should be increased to provide forensic, policy, economic and social solutions to improve trade management.

Exploring the Wildlife Value Orientations of Locals Working in Community-Based Marine Wildlife Tourism in the Philippines

Wildlife tourism can act as an incentive for the conservation of marine species and habitats. One of the most important outcomes can be a change in the views of participants towards target species and their habitats that may promote more conservation-oriented actions. While a handful of studies have documented the wildlife value orientations (WVOs) of tourists participating in marine wildlife tourism, no studies have explored the WVOs of locals working in tourism. However, it is equally important to understand the WVOs of locals working in community-based tourism, and whether these are linked with changes in locals' attitudes and behaviors towards marine wildlife and the ocean. This article assesses the WVOs of locals working in community-based whale shark tourism at four sites in the Philippines, and explores the relationship between WVOs and conservation attitudes and behaviors using a mixed methods approach with a total of 114 structured interviews. Three WVO groups were identified (mixed utilitarian–protectionist, moderate protectionist, and high protectionist), suggesting a WVO continuum. Those respondents with more protectionist views reported more conservation outcomes, including changes in attitudes and behaviors to protect whale sharks. Further, respondents who worked in tourism had more protectionist views than those from a failed tourism site, indicating that tourism can change communities by helping locals value their marine resources and incentivizing protection of those resources.

"People should also look after the people": relational values of wildlife and collectively titled land in Ilkisongo Maasai group ranches in Southern Kenya

"People should also look after the people": relational values of wildlife and collectively titled land in Ilkisongo Maasai group ranches in Southern Kenya

The effects of bat photographs on emotions, attitudes, intentions, and wildlife value orientations

ABSTRACT Photo stimuli can be an effective way to engage people in wildlife conservation by stimulating emotions and cognitions. In a before-after experiment, we studied the effects of two sets of photo stimuli (bat under distress vs. bat with engaged human) on the observer’s wildlife value orientations, emotions, attitudes (bats/conservation) and behavioral intentions to engage with wildlife conservation. After viewing the photos of distressed bats, participants felt significantly more anger, sadness, and compassion than participants who viewed the photos showing a bat with a human. Photos with distressed bats raised more positive attitudes toward wildlife conservation, higher intentions to engage in wildlife conservation, more mutualism values, and less domination values than photos showing bats with a human. Photographs of vulnerable and distressed bats might be an important tool to temporarily increase people’s emotional reactions to bats, their wildlife value orientation and probably, more importantly, their support for bat conservation.

Estimating the Cultural Value of Wild Animals in the Qinling Mountains, China: A Choice Experiment.

Simple SummaryThe presence of wildlife makes an important contribution to ecosystem services, and in the hot spots of biodiversity conservation, the results of wild animal value evaluation can provide a basis for the formulation of ecological compensation standards. Applying the choice experiment method, we assessed the value of wild animals in the surrounding areas of the Changqing National Nature Reserve in China from the tourist perspective. The results of our field survey suggest that the cultural value of wild animals, measured in terms of willingness-to-pay, is significantly higher than that of the infrastructure and other natural landscape features. These findings can provide a basis for the rational allocation of resources for wild animal conservation.In this study, we use the choice experiment method to evaluate the value of wild animals in the surrounding areas of the Changqing National Nature Reserve in China. For areas focused on biodiversity conservation, the results of wild animal value evaluation can provide a basis for the formulation of local ecological compensation standards. We identified wild animals, natural landscape features, infrastructure and facilities, and ticket price as major attributes determining the utility and value of the reserve area. The results of our field survey suggest that the cultural value of wild animals is significantly higher than the value of the infrastructure and other natural landscapes. Tourists indicated a willingness-to-pay of 31.4 Yuan to see wild animals in captivity, compared to 71.9 Yuan to see wild animals in the field. Moreover, tourists with different characteristics have different preferences for the cultural value of wildlife. Female tourists have a higher willingness-to-pay than male tourists. In addition, as age, education, and income level increase, tourists’ willingness-to-pay also increases. These conclusions can provide a reference for local government to formulate wildlife protection compensation and ecotourism ticket pricing.

Social value shift in favour of biodiversity conservation in the United States

Global biodiversity loss is indicative of the massive influence of human activity that defines the Anthropocene. Some scholars argue that changes in behaviour at the scale necessary to address this crisis will require wholesale change in cultural values. However, evidence is lacking on whether values are shifting. To better understand this phenomenon, we analysed long-term, large-scale trend data regarding wildlife values in the United States, collected through a 19-state survey in 2004 (n = 12,673) and 2017–2018 (n = 20,674). Findings confirmed an increased endorsement of mutualism values (seeing wildlife as part of one’s social community and deserving of rights like humans) accompanied by a decline in values emphasizing domination (treating wildlife as resources to be used for human benefit), a trend further visible in cross-generational cohort analysis. We also found strong associations between state-level values and trends in urbanization, connecting the shift to macro-level socioeconomic factors. Results suggest positive outcomes for conservation but the field’s ability to adapt will be critical to realizing those outcomes. A large survey in 19 US states covering just over a decade shows that values regarding wildlife are shifting toward seeing it as one’s community, as opposed to a resource to use for human benefit.

The value of wildlife in international environmental law

Biodiversity loss continues to be one of the greatest issues for this generation despite the development of International Environmental Law (IEL). By examining the anthropocentric nature of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) I will argue that how we attribute value to wildlife and the human-centric construction of law are the key reasons for the failures of IEL. Ultimately a shift in attitude is required if we are to effectively halt environmental degradation and protect wildlife species under IEL.

Maximizing the value of forest restoration for tropical mammals by detecting three-dimensional habitat associations

Tropical forest ecosystems are facing unprecedented levels of degradation, severely compromising habitat suitability for wildlife. Despite the fundamental role biodiversity plays in forest regeneration, identifying and prioritizing degraded forests for restoration or conservation, based on their wildlife value, remains a significant challenge. Efforts to characterize habitat selection are also weakened by simple classifications of human-modified tropical forests as intact vs. degraded, which ignore the influence that three-dimensional (3D) forest structure may have on species distributions. Here, we develop a framework to identify conservation and restoration opportunities across logged forests in Borneo. We couple high-resolution airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and camera trap data to characterize the response of a tropical mammal community to changes in 3D forest structure across a degradation gradient. Mammals were most responsive to covariates that accounted explicitly for the vertical and horizontal characteristics of the forest and actively selected structurally complex environments comprising tall canopies, increased plant area index throughout the vertical column, and the availability of a greater diversity of niches. We show that mammals are sensitive to structural simplification through disturbance, emphasizing the importance of maintaining and enhancing structurally intact forests. By calculating occurrence thresholds of species in response to forest structural change, we identify areas of degraded forest that would provide maximum benefit for multiple high-conservation value species if restored. The study demonstrates the advantages of using LiDAR to map forest structure, rather than relying on overly simplistic classifications of human-modified tropical forests, for prioritizing regions for restoration.

Steep and deep: Terrain and climate factors explain brown bear (Ursus arctos) alpine den site selection to guide heli-skiing management.

Winter recreation and tourism continue to expand worldwide, and where these activities overlap with valuable wildlife habitat, there is greater potential for conservation concerns. Wildlife populations can be particularly vulnerable to disturbance in alpine habitats as helicopters and snowmachines are increasingly used to access remote backcountry terrain. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have adapted hibernation strategies to survive this period when resources and energy reserves are limited, and disturbance could negatively impact fitness and survival. To help identify areas of potential conflict between helicopter skiing and denning brown bears in Alaska, we developed a model to predict alpine denning habitat and an associated data-based framework for mitigating disturbance activities. Following den emergence in spring, we conducted three annual aerial surveys (2015–2017) and used locations from three GPS-collared bears (2008–2014) to identify 89 brown bear dens above the forest line. We evaluated brown bear den site selection of land cover, terrain, and climate factors using resource selection function (RSF) models. Our top model supported the hypothesis that bears selected dens based on terrain and climate factors that maximized thermal efficiency. Brown bears selected den sites characterized by steep slopes at moderate elevations in smooth, well-drained topographies that promoted vegetation and deep snow. We used the RSF model to map relative probability of den selection and found 85% of dens occurred within terrain predicted as prime denning habitat. Brown bear exposure to helicopter disturbance was evident as moderate to high intensities of helicopter flight tracking data overlapped prime denning habitat, and we quantified where the risk of these impact was greatest. We also documented evidence of late season den abandonment due to disturbance from helicopter skiing. The results from this study provide valuable insights into bear denning habitat requirements in subalpine and alpine landscapes. Our quantitative framework can be used to support conservation planning for winter recreation industries operating in habitats occupied by denning brown bears.

Informing Public Engagement Strategies to Motivate the Public to Protect the Great Lakes: Lessons learned from the 2018 Great Lakes Basin Binational Poll.

Engaging the public in protecting water resources is a critical yet challenging task. A wealth of social science studies has identified psychological predictors for individual pro-environmental behaviors. These predictors can guide communication in public engagement and inform the allocation of engagement efforts. However, a thorny challenge is to select influential factors among many candidates. This paper addresses this challenge by using social science research to guide the development of strategies to motivate the public to protect the North American Great Lakes. We considered a variable selection technique, the LASSO regression, in the post-hoc analysis of the International Joint Commission's 2018 Binational Great Lakes Binational Poll data. The poll surveyed 4250 Canadian and U.S. residents of the Great Lakes basin. We fit LASSO logistic models to predict respondents' intentions to take three public actions to protect the Great Lakes, including contacting public officials, attending public meetings, and engaging in online forums and groups. The models included 41 predictors encompassing demographic characteristics as well as respondents' awareness, beliefs, and values that are pertinent to Great Lakes policy development and management. Results revealed eight variables that consistently predicted the three public actions, including indigenous status, political ideology, impacts of the specific policy issues of nuclear wastes, policy awareness and interests, and the Great Lakes values for personal benefits and wildlife. Based on these findings, we recommend strategies to motivate the public to take public actions to protect the Great Lakes.

The Spider Exposure Pathway and the Potential Risk to Arachnivorous Birds.

There is growing concern over the health of North American birds, with evidence suggesting substantial population declines. Spiders are prominent dietary items for many bird species and mediate the transfer of contaminants to arachnivorous birds that consume them. Few studies have investigated the potential risk the spider exposure pathway poses to these birds because most studies have focused on piscivores. In the present study, we developed new chronic and acute As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Se, Zn, and MeHg spider-based avian wildlife values (SBAWVs) for multiple adult and nestling birds (primarily passerines) and then used the newly generated SBAWVs to characterize the risk to birds across 2 study areas: 1) 5 reaches in the southern Appalachian Mountains, an area with substantial mercury deposition but minimal anthropogenic impact, and 2) 4 reaches adjacent to the Emory River, an area impacted by the largest fly coal-ash spill in US history. We identified MeHg and Cu, Pb, Se, and Zn as contaminants of potential concern (COPC) at the Appalachian Mountain and Emory River study areas, respectively, based on dietary exposure of aquatic contaminants via riparian spiders. The identification of COPC at both study areas due to dietary spider exposure is notable not only because the spider exposure pathway has largely been uninvestigated at these sites but also because the aquatic systems in both areas have been studied extensively. Significant differences in MeHg concentrations were detected among spider taxa and suggest that the selection of spider taxa can impact risk characterization. These results indicate that the spider exposure pathway is important to consider when assessing potential risk, particularly for passerine birds. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:2314-2324. © 2020 SETAC.

Regenerating mixed bottomland hardwood forests in north Missouri: Effects of harvest treatment on structure, composition, and growth through 15 years

Bottomland forest ecosystems provide important economic and ecological benefits within the midwestern and southern United States, yet silvicultural guidelines for reaching management objectives have been poorly developed outside the southeastern region. Bottomland hardwood forests are highly productive and dynamic ecosystems that contain a multitude of herbaceous and woody plant species and can support an abundance of wildlife throughout stand development. In particular, oak species are often favored for timber and wildlife values but may occur in low abundance due, in part, to challenges with regeneration. This study was designed to examine the structure and composition of a mixed bottomland hardwood forest (elm/ash/cottonwood) in northeast Missouri in response to two regeneration harvest treatments (i.e., clearcut with reserves and basal area retention) and one unharvested control through 15 years after harvest. Results indicate that clearcutting had a greater effect on subsequent forest composition and stand development than partial harvesting. In particular, the clearcutting treatment increased the relative basal area of American elm and relative abundance (trees per hectare) of green ash. Results suggest that the regeneration harvests did not increase the abundance of oak regeneration. However, the growth rates and the size of oak stems within the regeneration cohort were comparable to competing species, suggesting the oaks within the regeneration cohort presumably originated from advance reproduction. Thus, these results support the importance for establishing oak advance reproduction prior to regeneration harvest within bottomland forests.

The changing sociocultural context of wildlife conservation.

We introduced a multilevel model of value shift to describe the changing social context of wildlife conservation. Our model depicts how cultural‐level processes driven by modernization (e.g., increased wealth, education, and urbanization) affect changes in individual‐level cognition that prompt a shift from domination to mutualism wildlife values. Domination values promote beliefs that wildlife should be used primarily to benefit humans, whereas mutualism values adopt a view that wildlife are part of one's social network and worthy of care and compassion. Such shifts create emergent effects (e.g., new interest groups) and challenges to wildlife management organizations (e.g., increased conflict) and dramatically alter the sociopolitical context of conservation decisions. Although this model is likely applicable to many modernized countries, we tested it with data from a 2017–2018 nationwide survey (mail and email panel) of 43,949 residents in the United States. We conducted hierarchical linear modeling and correlational analysis to examine relationships. Modernization variables had strong state‐level effects on domination and mutualism. Higher levels of education, income, and urbanization were associated with higher percentages of mutualists and lower percentages of traditionalists, who have strong domination values. Values affected attitudes toward wildlife management challenges; for example, states with higher proportions of mutualists were less supportive of lethal control of wolves (Canis lupus) and had lower percentages of active hunters, who represent the traditional clientele of state wildlife agencies in the United States. We contend that agencies will need to embrace new strategies to engage and represent a growing segment of the public with mutualism values. Our model merits testing for application in other countries.

Rooting depth and below ground biomass in a freshwater coastal marsh invaded by European Reed (<i>Phragmites australis</i>) compared with remnant uninvaded sites at Long Point, Ontario

Invasive European Reed (Phragmites australis subsp. australis) outcompetes native vegetation, reducing floristic diversity and habitat value for wildlife. Research in coastal salt marshes has indicated that P. australis invasion may be facilitated by its relatively deep rooting depth, but in freshwater marshes the growth pattern of below ground tissues in relation to water depth is uncertain. To determine if P. australis is rooting more deeply than resident wetland plant species in a freshwater coastal marsh on Lake Erie, Ontario, we measured the vertical distribution of below ground biomass in P. australis invaded marsh sites and compared it to the below ground biomass distribution in nearby sites not yet invaded by P. australis. These invaded and uninvaded sites were paired by water depth, which is known to influence resource allocation and rooting depth. Below ground biomass in invaded sites was greater than in uninvaded sites (t28 = 3.528, P = 0.001), but rooting depth (i.e., the depth at which 90% of total below ground biomass is accounted for) was comparable (t28 = 0.992, P = 0.330). Using water depth and site type, general linear models could predict below ground biomass (F2,55 = 9.115, P < 0.001) but not rooting depth (F2,55 = 1.175, P = 0.316). Rooting depth is likely affected by other factors such as substrate type and the depth of the organic soil horizon.

Is there Hope for Heritage in Former British Colonies in Eastern Africa? A View from Tanzania

British Colonial governments in eastern Africa became deeply involved in the protection and conservation of Protected Areas, zones of high value for natural history and wildlife. Often such areas were created without consideration of community interests and management expertise. Centralized power and decision-making militated against local engagement. This trend was accompanied by parallel developments in the heritage sector, which initially focused on the creation of institutions to facilitate the preservation of sites declared as national monuments in the respective colonies. Such institutions were given the mandate to ensure the security and conservation of the monuments, to investigate the history/archaeology of the respective colonies, and to provide permits to researchers. These institutions continue to document and preserve heritage sites and issue permits, but their strong application of central control has diminished local attempts to manage and develop heritage sites. Using Tanzania as a case study, this paper examines how the Division of Antiquities has come to mimic the Division of Wildlife’s failure to respond to community needs and initiatives—part of the colonial legacy of central control and maintenance of institutional interests before service to public concern.