Value Of Urban Green Spaces Research Articles

Urban greening: A new paradox of economic or social sustainability?

Cities globally have incorporated sustainable development into their planning, and led the way in responding to the world’s ecological crisis by “going green”. Urban green space accessibility is considered as the key to urban sustainability progress, not only environmentally, but also economically and socially. However, previous research rarely considers the latter two dimensions together. This study therefore joins the sustainability discussion from a new perspective, in particular the debate concerning the value of urban green spaces and whether and how they contribute to the variegated sustainability agenda? Based on data for 76,595 residential housing units in New York City, measuring the economic gains and equity losses from current urban green space accessibility reveals a paradox in sustainable development where the economic and social benefits of urban green space accessibility are seldom compatible, tending to involve a trade-off of some kind. In response, it is proposed that the spatial patterns of land use can represent a step towards multifaceted aspects of sustainability, with the provision of numerous small green areas that are “affordable and accessible” throughout the city being a more appropriate policy agenda than a few vast parks. Such a policy approach, it is argued, will provide a ‘win-win’ situation in terms of simultaneously contributing to both economic prosperity and the social justice of sustainability. This research also provided evidence for the institutional-driven countries such as China on how to learn from western experiences on planning land use patterns that are sustainable for individuals.

Vertical life: impact of roof height on beetle diversity and abundance on wildflower green roofs

Abstract Despite their increasing popularity in an urban setting, we still know relatively little in how well-extensive green roofs support biodiversity in terms of vertical connectivity from terrestrial habitats. Most green roof biodiversity studies have not considered whether the roof height affects community composition and abundance of species present. This study focused on evaluating beetle diversity and abundance in relation to roof height, with emphasis on wildflower roofs. The key results of the study confirm previous studies found that extensive wildflower green roofs are capable of supporting fairly rich beetle communities, including some rare/scarce species. However, an increase of roof height was found to negatively impact both beetle abundance and richness, despite all recorded species being well adapted to active flight and thus dispersal. In addition forb cover decreased with roof height which consequently influenced beetle community structure. These results are therefore indicative that further research is required on species communities found on extensive green roofs that are less adapted to active flight and consequently vertical dispersal. This study further highlights the need for vertical and horizontal connectivity between green roofs and the surrounding natural habitats as a management tool to increase the general ecological value of urban green spaces.

Nature affinity and willingness to pay for urban green spaces in a developing country

Urban green spaces (UGS) provide multiple ecosystem services to city residents and are often their only places to spend time in a natural environment. Rapid urbanisation poses difficult choices for city planners who frequently decide to prioritise built infrastructure over retaining or enhancing green spaces, not least because the value of green spaces is rarely recognised in policy and planning processes. This is particularly true in developing countries which face rapidly growing populations and trade-offs between the growing demand for built infrastructure and access to nature. We address the value of public UGS using both a monetary approach and a non-monetary approach. A Contingent Valuation (CV) survey was used to elicit householderś willingness-to-pay (WTP) for three different scenarios to enhance public UGS provision in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. Scenarios were based on ongoing public debates on how to address the degradation and loss of existing park areas and on current plans to build new parks. The same survey also employed the Nature Relatedness (NR) scale, which measures individual cognitive attachment to nature, as a non-monetary valuation approach. Our findings showed that a high attachment to nature does not necessarily lead to higher WTP for improved provision of public UGS as WTP is constrained by household characteristics such as income, education and household size. We concluded that monetary valuation techniques could potentially underestimate the value attached to UGS by some population groups (e.g. rural migrants and pensioners) that attach great importance to UGS but whose values are not reflected in a high WTP. Thus, we argue that the assessment of the value of UGS would benefit from combining monetary and non-monetary approaches under various institutional contexts; and that this would be particularly important for cities in developing countries.

Is an Environment with High Biodiversity the Most Attractive for Human Recreation? A Case Study in Baoji, China

Evidence has been accumulating of the psychological and physiological benefits and well-being gained by individuals from recreational activities in urban green spaces due to their ability to sustain biodiversity, but maximizing both biodiversity and recreational values of green spaces has become increasingly difficult in practice. In order to better maximize the biodiversity and recreational value of urban green space, this study was conducted through the utilization of an onsite questionnaire to understand people’s perceptions of and preferences for biodiversity and recreational values of urban green spaces in Baoji City, China. The results showed that respondents were able to correctly perceive biodiversity and preferred to engage in recreational activities in the high biodiversity environment. However, the respondents’ perceptions of the eight perceived sensory dimensions (PSDs) in the different habitats were divergent, and an environment which is high in biodiversity does not necessarily have higher PSDs. Moreover, ‘living environment’ and ‘frequency to the park’ had significant impacts on perception of and preference for urban biodiversity. In addition, ‘education level’, ‘living environment’, ‘age’, and other indicators were more likely to influence the perception of the eight PSDs. Therefore, the presented findings can be applied by urban landscape planners to assess the qualities of urban green spaces in order to maintain urban biodiversity and meet the satisfaction of human recreation in the future.

Valuing individual characteristics and the multifunctionality of urban green spaces: The integration of sociotope mapping and hedonic pricing.

We categorize Stockholm’s urban green spaces according to the use values and social meanings they support, based on a sociotope mapping, and estimate their impact on property prices with a hedonic pricing model. The approach allows us to identify the most and least desired green space characteristics (attributes) and to assess the willingness to pay for the multifunctionality of green spaces. To do this, we test the following hypotheses, each with a separate hedonic pricing model: the proximity of all green space characteristics increases the property prices, but the specific monetary value of these characteristics differs;the multifunctionality of green spaces is well recognized and highly valued by real estate buyers.We find partial support for the first hypothesis: the green space attributes of “aesthetics”, “social activity” and “nature” seem to be desired by real estate buyers, whereas “physical activity” and “play” seem not to be desired. We also find support for the second hypothesis: the higher the number of characteristics an urban green space has, the stronger its impact on property prices. This study furthers the discussion on the economic value of urban green spaces by assigning monetary value to their perceived character and use values. In doing so, it highlights the need to understand green spaces both as ecological features and social constructs.

Comparing Value of Urban Green Space Using Contingent Valuation and Travel Cost Methods

Green urban open space are an important element of the city. They gives multiple benefits for social life, human health, biodiversity, air quality, carbon sequestration, and water management. Travel Cost Method (TCM) and Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) are the most frequently used method in various studies that assess environmental good and services in monetary term for valuing urban green space. Both of those method are determined the value of urban green space through willingness to pay (WTP) for ecosystem benefit and collected data through direct interview and questionnaire. Findings of this study showed the weaknesses and strengths of both methods for valuing urban green space and provided factors influencing the probability of user’s willingness to pay in each method.

Revealing Preferences for Urban Green Spaces: A Scale-sensitive Hedonic Pricing Analysis for the City of Leipzig

•We present a scale-sensitive approach to define value of urban green spaces (UGSs).•A hedonic pricing analysis was conducted for 261,827 flats in Leipzig, Germany.•Revealed preferences for UGSs differ between the city level and district level.•Socio-economic variables can explain differences in revealed preferences.•The stepwise analysis approach is applicable for complex systems in general.

Monetary value of urban green space as an ecosystem service provider: A case study of urban runoff management in Finland

The predicted increase in the number of urban flood events can result in substantial monetary losses to society. These costs may be alleviated by preserving ecosystem services, such as urban runoff management. We studied the monetary value of this ecosystem service by applying the replacement cost method in six catchments with varying land-use intensities in two cities in Finland. The economic analysis was based on metric data of urban runoff generation, provided by automatic monitoring stations in the catchments. A hydrological model was applied to estimate evaporation from impervious surfaces, and to simulate runoff in the catchments. Our results suggest that leaving green space unconstructed results in significant monetary savings. The cost of managing runoff correlated with land-use intensity. The ecosystem service value (ESV) was generally higher in catchments with high land-use intensity, low proportion of green space, and high costs of runoff management. Depending on the degree of imperviousness, the ESV ranged from 90,000–270,000€ha−1. Further, our results suggest that estimates of runoff generation and evaporation are key hydrological factors for assessing ESV. Our study demonstrates how the combination of field data and hydrological and monetary analyses can support regional planning in cold climates.

Considerations in the valuation of urban green space: Accounting for user participation

Within the ecosystem services framework, valuations of natural capital have primarily taken a landscape-scale approach. The generation of transferable monetary values for individual ecosystems has likewise depended on assessments carried out at large spatial scales. Such methods, however, lack adequate regard for complex natural habitats. This complexity is heightened in urban areas where green spaces provide multiple services according to use and participation. Hence, there is a need to acknowledge the unique value of urban nature, and the socially-mediated nature of its productivity. This need was addressed through a study of collectively managed green spaces in a north-west England conurbation (UK). Ninety-one sites were identified, followed by a case study of twelve sites assessing their value across four ecosystem services. A subsequent projection of the value of stakeholder-led land management was calculated and compared to an existing reference for the value of urban green space from The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity database. The study found that collectively managed sites contribute considerable added-value to urban natural capital. In addition, the work highlights the shortcomings of applying transferable values to multi-functional habitat types, calling for a closer consideration of social-ecological contexts in the valuation of ecosystem services.

Bioculturally valuable but not necessarily worth the price: Integrating different dimensions of value of urban green spaces

The social processes that took place in the past left a mark not only on cultural heritage but also on ecosystems and biodiversity, which is now depicted in the concept of biocultural diversity. The related “biocultural value” represents yet another dimension of the value of urban green spaces which we attempt to integrate into monetary valuation with the use of hedonic pricing. We compare the impacts of different green spaces on property prices in Łódź, Poland, differentiating green spaces based on their biocultural value. Furthermore, we use quantile regression and analyze the heterogeneity of estimates according to the price of the apartment. Our study indicates that while there is a general desire to live close to the green space, biocultural value does not translate into any positive impact on property prices.

Bee Fauna and Floral Abundance Within Lawn-Dominated Suburban Yards in Springfield, MA.

Private yards comprise a significant component of urban lands, with managed lawns representing the dominant land cover. Lawns blanket > 163,000 km2 of the United States, and 50% of urban and suburban areas. When not treated with herbicides, lawns have the capacity to support a diversity of spontaneous (e.g., not planted) flowers, with the potential to provide nectar and pollen resources for pollinators such as native bees. In order to determine the extent to which suburban lawns support these important species, we surveyed lawns in 17 suburban yards in Springfield, MA, between May and September 2013 and 2014. Householders participating in the study did not apply chemical pesticides or herbicides to lawns for the duration of the study. We collected 5,331 individual bees, representing 111 species, and 29% of bee species reported for the state. The majority of species were native to North America (94.6%), nested in soil (73%), and solitary (48.6%). Species richness was lower for oligolectic (specialists on a single plant; 9.9%) and parasitic species (12.6%). Abundance percentages for number of individuals were similar. We documented 63 plant species in the lawns, the majority of which were not intentionally planted. The most abundant lawn flowers were dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and clover (Trifolium sp.). Nearly 30% of the spontaneous plant species growing in the lawns were native to North America. Our study suggests that the spontaneous lawn flowers could be viewed as supplemental floral resources and support pollinators, thereby enhancing the value of urban green spaces.

Spatial distribution and the value of green spaces for urban red-tailed hawks

Raptors increasingly live and nest successfully in urban areas. In the urban landscape of Hartford, CT, red-tailed hawks established home ranges in large green spaces such as parks, golf courses, and cemeteries but also nested successfully in the commercial district of downtown and in densely built urban and suburban neighborhoods. Data collected from 11 radio-tagged breeding adult hawks indicated that year-round home ranges averaged 107.7 ha, much smaller than home ranges reported for hawks inhabiting rural areas. Most hawk home ranges had multiple core areas that were usually associated with favored perches or larger patches of ‘usable’ green space, defined as patches ≥0.25 ha in size, and home range size was positively associated with larger usable green space patches in core areas. Most nests were located in the largest core area and were within a larger patch of green space within the largest core area. Rather than just the amount or size of green space patches, the value of urban green spaces for these hawks likely also varies with the number and proximity of suitable perches such as buildings or tall trees, types and density of prey, and amount of human activity in and adjacent to these spaces. Territoriality and intraspecific competition may also influence home range size and dispersion of red-tailed hawks nesting in Hartford. In this urban area, mortality due to ingestion of rodenticides and collisions with vehicles affected hawk reproductive success.

Preferences for urban green spaces and peri-urban forests: An analysis of stated residential choices

This paper assesses the value of urban green spaces, specifically peri-urban forests and their potential substitutes, for the local population on the basis of their residential choice. We applied a choice experiment that focuses on the trade-offs between private housing characteristics and the environmental aspects of neighborhoods. Individual willingness-to-pay is estimated from a latent class model and a mixed logit model along with a Willingness-To-Pay (WTP) space approach. Our results show that green spaces provide both direct use value (recreation) and indirect use value (scenic view). The respondent's value of distance to peri-urban forests depends on recreational use. The ownership of a private garden reduces the WTP for living closer to an urban park.

Environmental education excursions and proximity to urban green space – densification in a ‘compact city’

The value of urban green space for environmental education fieldwork is empirically investigated in a study among all secondary schools in Amsterdam. The article describes how the proximity of schools to green spaces emerges as a new factor in the ‘sustainable city’ and the ‘compact city’ debate. For fieldwork excursions proximity to green spaces is crucial for establishing a pattern of outdoor environmental education. Once established, it shapes teachers’ attitudes on excursions. A linear structural path analysis reveals how this in turn results in more fieldwork excursions to other destinations. Interviews with teachers show how this can be interpreted mainly as a result from iterative positive experiences with excursions close to the school, which are triggered by the availability of nearby green space. Remarkably, beside the effects of green spaces for well-being and health, the significance of green space for environmental education of children remained under-investigated. This argument came prominently to the fore in a case of urban densification within the framework of compact city policies. In the dispute about the elimination of green space, citizens claimed a high educational value would vanish, but they felt this value was not recognized in the decision-making process.

Value of urban green spaces in promoting healthy living and wellbeing: prospects for planning.

There has been considerable work done in recent years exploring the value of urban green space for health and wellbeing. Urban green spaces provide environmental benefits through their effects on negating urban heat, offsetting greenhouse gas emissions, and attenuating storm water. They also have direct health benefits by providing urban residents spaces for physical activity and social interaction, and allowing psychological restoration to take place. Consequently, there is a real need to understand the mechanisms by which these benefits accrue. Previously, much of the focus has been on the characteristics of the urban green space that are likely to influence its use, such as its accessibility, quality, facilities, attractiveness, and security. This assumes a causal relationship, when in reality the relationship is more complex and multifactorial. It is more likely that it is the functionality of the green space, be it for exercise or sociocultural activities, rather than its character, which translates to the reported benefits. Challenges exist, such as competing urban planning priorities, economic considerations, and market forces. There is thus a need for urban planning to match the health benefits sought with the needs of the community and the functionality that the urban green space will serve.

Willingness and motivation of residents to pay for conservation of urban green spaces in Jinan, China

Research indicates a relationship between motivation and willingness for conservation of urban green spaces. This study assessed the value of urban green spaces in Jinan using a contingent valuation method and payment card approaches, explored the motives behind payment, and identified the residents' recreational patterns of using urban green spaces. A total of 606 respondents in the 18–70 age groups from different parks and socio-economic groups were interviewed using cluster sampling. About 47% of respondents visited urban green spaces weekly, with 15.2% of respondents scarcely visiting parks. Companions during visits were family members, especially children. Leisure activities and exercising topped the list of activities undertaken in parks. 81.4% of respondents were willing to pay for the conservation of urban green spaces, and trust in the government was the most important factor that led to a high protest ratio. The average and median willingness to pay (WTP) values were RMB 81.81 per year and 50.0 per year, respectively, which were higher than actual park entrance fees. A Logistic regression analysis indicated that WTP value was linked to monthly income and frequency of visits. And the results suggested that individual resident intention to pay was mainly based on existence value, and supplemented by option value and bequest value. These results could assist planning and conservation of urban green spaces, and provide motivation for further research in these areas.

A gendered analysis of community perceptions and attitudes towards green spaces in a Durban Metropolitan residential area: Implications for climate change mitigation

abstractUnderstanding how people perceive green spaces in their surrounding environments is important for planning of residential areas in a city. Green spaces provide various benefits to communities in the form of recreation, education, relaxation and aesthetic appeal. This Article reports on research on residents' opinions and understanding of green spaces and their access and use of green spaces. It also assesses perceptions regarding climate change and the value of urban green spaces in mitigating against climate change impacts and threats. The importance of urban green spaces in the context of climate change is well documented, specifically to relieve the impacts of increased temperatures and natural disaster events. It also plays a critical role in preserving biodiversity and improving air quality. While several studies focus on residents' perceptions of green spaces, very few (if any) examine differences between men and women. This Article disaggregates results from a resident survey conducted in the South Durban Area (SDA), one of the most environmentally contested locations in South Africa. In total, 200 households residing in close proximity to the Bluff Conservancy were interviewed. Key thematic issues examined include differences in the way in which men and women value and use green spaces, attitudes towards green spaces, the types of green spaces that respondents prefer accessing, knowledge of green spaces and links to climate change. It was found that a greater proportion of men used existing green spaces within their community. Differences in terms of how men and women value and perceive green spaces were also noted. This study concludes that there is a gendered dimension to residential perceptions of the use of green spaces and this should be considered in the formulation of climate change policy and urban planning efforts.

Localización y acceso al verde urbano de la ciudad de Salamanca

Texto resumen.

The Value of Urban Green Space in Britain: A Methodological Framework for Spatially Referenced Benefit Transfer

A meta-analysis of studies valuing urban greenspace in the UK is undertaken to yield spatially sensitive marginal value functions. A geographical information system (GIS) is used to apply these functions to spatial data detailing the location of such greenspace resources in five British cities. Changes in monetary values are computed for the six future scenarios used in the UK National Ecosystem Assessment for the period 2010–2060. Different degrees of substitutability between urban greenspaces are considered. These findings are then extrapolated to all major British cities to obtain per household and aggregate valuation estimates for each scenario both with and without distributional weights. While subject to a number of shortcomings in both data availability and methodology, this represents the first systematic and comprehensive attempt to value marginal changes in urban greenspace while accounting for spatial heterogeneity.

Allometry and photosynthetic capacity of poplar (Populus deltoides) along a metal contamination gradient in an urban brownfield

The value of urban green space has become an increasingly controversial issue. In particular, development of novel vegetative assemblages on vacant lands may have many formerly unrecognized benefits. However, questions remain regarding the functional impairment of these assemblages due to degraded soils. We investigated the effects of elevated concentrations of soil metals on allometry and photosynthetic capacity of naturally colonized poplars (Populus deltoides Michx.) growing at Liberty State Park, New Jersey. We found that allometries of harvested trees did not differ significantly between the low metal load (LML) and high metal load (HML) sites suggesting that metal contamination did not negatively affect carbon allocation patterns of the target species. Likewise, photosynthetic parameters did not differ significantly between the LML and HML sites, suggesting that soil metal contamination did not negatively affect photosynthetic capacity. However, trees from the LML site were significantly younger for a given size than trees from the HML site. Trees from the medium metal load site (MML) differed significantly in allometry and photosynthetic parameters from the other two sites suggesting other edaphic and ecological factors are a stronger driver for carbon allocation patterns and photosynthetic capacity in these trees. Taken together, this research suggests that sapling establishment and growth may be impaired by heavy metals and that trees in HML sites may incur more maintenance costs than trees in LML sites. However, given enough time, poplars can provide considerable rehabilitation of urban brownfields, particularly those that exhibit soil metal contamination.