Vaccination Of Cattle Research Articles

Evaluation of the safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of three capripoxvirus vaccine strains against lumpy skin disease virus

The safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of three commercially available vaccines against lumpy skin disease (LSD) in cattle have been evaluated using a combination of vaccine challenge experiments and the monitoring of immune responses in vaccinated animals in the field. The three vaccines evaluated in the study included two locally produced (Ethiopian) vaccines (lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) Neethling and Kenyan sheep and goat pox (KSGP) O-180 strain vaccines) and a Gorgan goat pox (GTP) vaccine manufactured by Jordan Bio-Industries Centre (JOVAC). The latter vaccine was evaluated for the first time in cattle against LSDV. The Ethiopian Neethling and KSGPO-180 vaccines failed to provide protection in cattle against LSDV, whereas the Gorgan GTP vaccine protected all the vaccinated calves from clinical signs of LSD. There was no significant difference in protective efficacy detected between two dosage levels (P=0.2, P=0.25, and P=0.1 for KSGP, Neethling and Gorgan vaccines, respectively). Additionally, the Gorgan GTP vaccinated cattle showed stronger levels of cellular immune responses measured using Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions at the vaccination site indicating higher levels of immunogenicity produced by the GTPV vaccine in cattle, as opposed to the other two vaccines. This study indicated, for the first time, that the Gorgan GTP vaccine can effectively protect cattle against LSDV and that the Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccine were not protective. The results emphasise the need for molecular characterization of the Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccine seed viruses used for vaccine production in Ethiopia. In addition, the potency and efficacy testing process of the Ethiopian LSD Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccines should be re-evaluated.

Escherichia coli O157:H7--Discerning Facts from Fiction: An Integrated Research and Extension Project for Multiple Audiences.

The O157:H7 (EcO157) epidemiology of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in cattle is complex, and myths about pre-harvest control are perpetuated. The objectives of this project were to identify perpetuated misinformation and inform four audiences about evidence-based risks and pre-harvest control of EcO157 by addressing: (i) EcO157 epidemiology and pre-harvest control; (ii) how food safety policy is created; and (iii) how to present accurate information about EcO157. An environmental scan using a daily Internet search helped identify themes for education. A literature review of pre-harvest control measures contributed to the development of educational materials (fact sheets, website, web presentations and conferences). Conference 1 was a webinar with 315 registrants, 10 countries including 41 US states and four Canadian provinces. Most participants felt confident in using their new knowledge, more than half felt confident enough to answer EcO157 questions from the public and many would recommend the recorded version of the webinar to colleagues. Conference 2 was live in the Washington, DC, area with most participants employed by the US government. All agreed that they better understood pre-harvest control, how food safety policy was made, and were confident they could create an effective message about STEC pre-harvest control. Videos were posted and received 348 Internet visitors within 2months. Conference 3 was a webinar with a live audience and Twitter feeds, targeting people who give nutrition advice. Almost all ranked the programme good to excellent and relevant to their work. About 25% indicated that they would share: 'grass-fed beef is not safer than grain-fed', 25% would share information on effectiveness of cattle vaccines, and 14% would share information on message mapping. Across all conferences, major changes in knowledge included the following: there is no additional risk of EcO157 shedding from grain-fed versus grass-fed cattle, pre-harvest vaccination is efficacious, and production systems (pasture versus confinement) do not affect EcO157 shedding rates.

Cattle rabies vaccination—A longitudinal study of rabies antibody titres in an Israeli dairy herd

In contrast to many regions of the world where rabies is endemic in terrestrial wildlife species, wildlife rabies has been controlled in Israel by oral rabies vaccination programs, but canine rabies is re-emerging in the northern area of the Golan Heights. From 2009 to 2014 there were 208 animal rabies cases in Israel; 96 (46%) were considered introduced primary cases in dogs, triggering 112 secondary cases. One third (37/112) of the secondary cases were in cattle. Rabies vaccination is voluntary for cattle in Israel, except those on public exhibit. Rabies vaccination schedules for cattle vary based on farm practices and perception of risk. In this study 59 cattle from a dairy farm which routinely vaccinates against rabies were assigned into six groups according to age and vaccination histories. Four groups contained adult cows which had received one previous rabies vaccination, one group of adults had received two previous vaccinations, and one group was unvaccinated calves. Serum samples were collected and the cows were vaccinated with a commercial rabies vaccine. Sera were again collected 39 days later and the calf group re-vaccinated and re-sampled 18 days later. Sera were analyzed for the presence of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies using the rapid immunofluorescent antibody test. Cattle with antibody titres ≥0.5IU/ml were considered to be protected against rabies. Twenty-six of 27 adult cattle (96%) vaccinated once at less than five months old did not have protective titres. Sixty percent (6/10) cattle vaccinated once at around six months of age did have adequate titres. Cattle previously vaccinated twice (n=10; 100%) with an 18 month interval between inoculations, had protective titres and protective antibody titres following booster vaccination (n=51; 100%). The anamnestic response of cattle to a killed rabies vaccine was not affected by the time interval between vaccinations, which ranged from 12 to 36 months. These results suggest that calves from vaccinated cows should not be vaccinated before six months old to avoid maternal antibody interference. Whilst most cattle older than six months old will be protected after a single inoculation, a second inoculation ensures a higher antibody levels for improved protection. Cattle receiving an effective priming dose responded well to a booster up to 36 months later. Such results demonstrate the effectiveness of rabies vaccination in cattle and the added value of a second dose to ensure a prolonged immune response against rabies.

HoBi-like pestivirus experimental infection in pregnant ewes: Reproductive disorders and generation of persistently infected lambs

In order to evaluate sheep as experimental model to test the efficacy of HoBi-like pestivirus vaccines for cattle, 10 sheep at different stages of pregnancy (30 or 50 days) were experimentally infected with the Italian prototype isolate Italy-1/10-1. Irrespective of the stage of pregnancy, virus inoculation resulted in reproductive failures, consisting of abortion, stillbirths or birth of weak or persistently infected (PI) lambs. Aborted fetuses, stillborn and dead lambs displayed extensive histopathological changes, consisting of hemorrhages, congestion and mononuclear infiltration in major organs. Pestiviral antigens were detected by immunohistochemistry in most tissues with remarkable signals in lungs and kidneys. PI lambs were constantly viremic, shed the virus through the nasal secretions and feces and, in all cases but one, did not have detectable HoBi-like pestivirus antibodies before the assumption of colostrum. The single seropositive infected lamb showed low-titer viremia and viral shedding that ceased only several weeks after the 3-month observation period. The study proves that sheep are susceptible to the reproduction failures caused by HoBi-like pestivirus infection and can serve as a suitable model for the evaluation of the fetal protection induced by homologous experimental vaccines.

Vaccination of sheep and cattle against haemonchosis.

Vaccines against gastrointestinal nematodes are one potential option for the control of parasitic gastroenteritis in ruminants. Excretory/secretory (E/S) and hidden antigens are being studied as candidates for vaccines against Haemonchus spp., which is a major parasite in cattle and small ruminants that are raised in warm climates. Protection has been observed after vaccination with some E/S proteases, particularly cysteine proteases and with some glycans that are abundant on the surfaces and in the secretory products of helminths. However, the most promising results are being obtained with glycoprotein antigens extracted from the microvillar surfaces of the Haemonchus contortus intestinal cells. These antigens are called 'hidden' because they are not exposed to the host's immune system during infection. Thus far, recombinant forms of these antigens have not been usefully protective. However, because only 5 μg of antigen is required per dose, production of a native antigen vaccine from adult parasites has been found to be practical and commercially viable. Trials indicate that a vaccine made from one particular isolate will cross-protect against geographically distant isolates.

Scale-up of transgenic tobacco cells that express intimin of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 for use as a transitional platform for an oral cattle vaccine

Intimin is the primary adhesin protein of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, a pathogen carried by cattle and transmitted to humans via contaminated food and water. This work describes the rapid production of 1.3 kg dry weight of transgenic tobacco cells expressing the C-terminal 261 amino acids of intimin (Int261) for subsequent oral vaccine testing to reduce cattle colonization by E. coli O157:H7. Both a stirred-tank bioreactor (60 L) and a less capital-intensive oxygenated carboy culture were shown feasible for generating this scale of transgenic plant tissue culture biomass. Antibiotic selection pressure was not required during scale-up to maintain Int261 expression over the 13-wk culture period. Extended medium autoclave times of up to 90 min used for bioreactor sterilization had only minimal impact on nutrient uptake, culture growth, and intimin expression. Plant tissue was transformed, produced in vitro, and available for feeding studies in a fraction of the time required to develop and grow transgenic plants.

Evaluation of biological safety in vitro and immunogenicity in vivo of recombinant Escherichia coli Shiga toxoids as candidate vaccines in cattle.

Cattle are the most important reservoir for enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), a subset of shigatoxigenic E. coli (STEC) capable of causing life-threatening infectious diseases in humans. In cattle, Shiga toxins (Stx) suppress the immune system thereby promoting long-term STEC shedding. First infections of animals at calves’ age coincide with the lack of Stx-specific antibodies. We hypothesize that vaccination of calves against Shiga toxins prior to STEC infection may help to prevent the establishment of a persistent type of infection. The objectives of this study were to generate recombinant Shiga toxoids (rStx1mut & rStx2mut) by site-directed mutagenesis and to assess their immunomodulatory, antigenic, and immunogenic properties. Cultures of bovine primary immune cells were used as test systems. In ileal intraepithelial lymphocytes both, recombinant wild type Stx1 (rStx1WT) and rStx2WT significantly induced transcription of IL-4 mRNA. rStx1WT and rStx2WT reduced the expression of Stx-receptor CD77 (syn. Globotriaosylceramide, Gb3) on B and T cells from peripheral blood and of CD14 on monocyte-derived macrophages. At the same concentrations, rStx1mut and rStx2mut exhibited neither of these effects. Antibodies in sera of cattle naturally infected with STEC recognized the rStxmut toxoids equally well as the recombinant wild type toxins. Immunization of calves with rStx1mut plus rStx2mut led to induction of antibodies neutralizing Stx1 and Stx2. While keeping their antigenicity and immunogenicity recombinant Shiga toxoids are devoid of the immunosuppressive properties of the corresponding wild type toxins in cattle and candidate vaccines to mitigate long-term STEC shedding by the reservoir host.

Vaccination of cattle with the N terminus of LppQ of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides results in type III immune complex disease upon experimental infection.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a serious respiratory disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides. Current vaccines against CBPP induce short-lived immunity and can cause severe postvaccine reactions. Previous studies have identified the N terminus of the transmembrane lipoprotein Q (LppQ-N′) of M. mycoides subsp. mycoides as the major antigen and a possible virulence factor. We therefore immunized cattle with purified recombinant LppQ-N′ formulated in Freund's adjuvant and challenged them with M. mycoides subsp. mycoides. Vaccinated animals showed a strong seroconversion to LppQ, but they exhibited significantly enhanced postchallenge glomerulonephritis compared to the placebo group (P = 0.021). Glomerulonephritis was characterized by features that suggested the development of antigen-antibody immune complexes. Clinical signs and gross pathological scores did not significantly differ between vaccinated and placebo groups. These findings reveal for the first time the pathogenesis of enhanced disease as a result of antibodies against LppQ during challenge and also argue against inclusion of LppQ-N′ in a future subunit vaccine for CBPP.

Vaccination of cattle with a methanogen protein produces specific antibodies in the saliva which are stable in the rumen

Methane is produced in the rumen of cattle by a group of archaea (single-celled organisms forming a domain distinct from bacteria and eucarya) called methanogens. Vaccination against methanogens has the potential to reduce methane emissions by inducing antibodies in saliva which are transferred to the rumen and diminish the ability of methanogens to produce methane. Since it is likely that an effective vaccination strategy will need to produce high levels of methanogen-specific antibody in the saliva; the choice of adjuvant, route of vaccination and stability of saliva-derived antibody in the rumen all need to be considered. In this study, stability of IgA and IgG in rumen fluid was determined using an in vitro assay. IgA levels in cattle saliva were reduced by only 40% after 8h exposure to rumen contents while IgG levels were reduced by 80%. These results indicated that antibody is relatively stable in the bovine rumen. A trial was conducted in cattle to investigate induction of immune responses to a methanogen protein, recombinant glycosyl transferase protein (rGT2) from Methanobrevibacter ruminantium M1. Groups of cattle (n=6) were vaccinated subcutaneously with rGT2, formulated with Montanide ISA61 with or without the TLR4 agonist, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL). A control group (n=6) was not vaccinated. Strong antigen-specific IgG and moderate IgA responses were measured in the serum and saliva of the vaccinated animals and antibody was also detected in the rumen.

Potential benefits of cattle vaccination as a supplementary control for bovine tuberculosis.

Vaccination for the control of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in cattle is not currently used within any international control program, and is illegal within the EU. Candidate vaccines, based upon Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) all interfere with the action of the tuberculin skin test, which is used to determine if animals, herds and countries are officially bTB-free. New diagnostic tests that Differentiate Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) offer the potential to introduce vaccination within existing eradication programs. We use within-herd transmission models estimated from historical data from Great Britain (GB) to explore the feasibility of such supplemental use of vaccination. The economic impact of bovine Tuberculosis for farmers is dominated by the costs associated with testing, and associated restrictions on animal movements. Farmers’ willingness to adopt vaccination will require vaccination to not only reduce the burden of infection, but also the risk of restrictions being imposed. We find that, under the intensive sequence of testing in GB, it is the specificity of the DIVA test, rather than the sensitivity, that is the greatest barrier to see a herd level benefit of vaccination. The potential negative effects of vaccination could be mitigated through relaxation of testing. However, this could potentially increase the hidden burden of infection within Officially TB Free herds. Using our models, we explore the range of the DIVA test characteristics necessary to see a protective herd level benefit of vaccination. We estimate that a DIVA specificity of at least 99.85% and sensitivity of >40% is required to see a protective benefit of vaccination with no increase in the risk of missed infection. Data from experimentally infected animals suggest that this target specificity could be achieved in vaccinates using a cocktail of three DIVA antigens while maintaining a sensitivity of 73.3% (95%CI: 61.9, 82.9%) relative to post-mortem detection.

Immunity and Vaccination against Tuberculosis in Cattle

Bovine tuberculosis (TB) continues to be a major animal health problem worldwide and new tools are required for the control of this disease in cattle, particularly with the emergence of wildlife reservoirs for Mycobacterium bovis infection and potential restrictions on trade. New insights into the roles of macrophages, dendritic cells, NK cells, and CD4+, CD8+, and γδ T cells in control of M. bovis infection in cattle have provided a better understanding of protective immunity against this disease. In the past two decades, considerable progress has been made in the development and evaluation of TB vaccines for cattle, with new attenuated mycobacterial vaccines providing an alternative to the use of BCG vaccine and sub-unit vaccines to boost protection induced by BCG. With the development of tests to differentiate infected from vaccinated animals, it is now feasible to use vaccines to assist in the control of this disease.

Vaccination and immune response of cattle against the bovine viral diarrhoea

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Evaluation of the Safety and Efficacy of a Live Attenuated Thermostable Rift Valley Fever Vaccine in Sheep, Goats and Cattle

Rift valley fever (RVF) is a highly significant vector-borne disease causing huge economic loses in livestock (ruminants and camels) and also human fatalities. The disease is endemic in most Sub-Saharan African countries, including West Africa, and has been present in the Middle East since 2010. Vaccination is considered to be the most effective way to prevent and control the expansion of the disease. Currently available attenuated live vaccines for RVF have significant limitations in that they are either thermolabile (CL13 strain vaccine) or causes abortion and teratogenic effects (Smithburn strain vaccine). This study therefore set out to develop a safe and effective thermostable live attenuated RVF vaccine. The existing CL13 vaccine, which is a naturally attenuated strain, was made thermostable through three cycles of heating (56°C) and selection. The resulting candidate vaccine (CL13T) was stable at 4°C for 20 months and shows significantly improved levels of thermostability over the existing CL13 vaccine. A pilot batch of the CL13T vaccine was produced and tested for safety and efficacy in cattle, sheep and goats. The vaccine was found to be safe, with no clinical signs or side effects observed in vaccinated animals, and there was no evidence for circulation of the virus in the blood of animals post-vaccination. On testing for efficacy in cattle, sheep and goats, through the detection of neutralizing antibodies post-vaccination, good levels of neutralizing antibodies were detected for a minimum of one year in sheep and goats, and neutralizing antibodies were detected for least 4 months in cattle. This new thermostable vaccine could represent an efficient tool for the control of rift valley fever in endemic countries. The vaccine also has the potential to be used, along with an appropriate diagnostic test, to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals (DIVA).

Les freins et motivations à la vaccination en élevage bovin : résultats d’études qualitative et quantitative

La fiche action 15 du plan Ecoantibio 2017 vise notamment identifier les freins à la vaccination puis à en promouvoir l’usage. Le SIMV a mené pour y répondre deux études de marché auprès d’éleveurs de bovins. La santé est la raison même de l’éleveur et les accidents en la matière sont vécus comme un échec personnel. C’est pourquoi l’éleveur est convaincu de la nécessité de mettre en oeuvre la prévention des maladies. Toutefois la prévention intègre essentiellement des mesures non médicales et ne rime pas forcément avec vaccination. Cette dernière est le plus souvent comparée à une assurance à laquelle l’éleveur a recours à la suite d’un événement marquant de perte en animaux. Si ses sources d’informations sont variées, la recommandation du vétérinaire est déterminante dans la décision de mettre en oeuvre un plan de prophylaxie médicale. Elle sera d’autant facilitée si le vétérinaire a instauré une relation de confiance éclairée. De très nombreux paramètres objectifs et subjectifs entrent dans les critères de décision de mise en oeuvre, d’amplification et de pérennisation de la vaccination. La pratique de la vaccination est rarement acquise définitivement. C’est pourquoi l’implication du vétérinaire est prépondérante tant pour initier que pour maintenir la vaccination en élevage de bovins.

Suggested guidelines for vaccination of cattle in Korea.

There is no published vaccination guideline to cattle even though each vaccine company suggested the program based on their products. Also, most of veterinary vaccines are multivalent. Therefore, it is very difficult to standardize the program. Now, we are suggesting the general vaccine programs based current situations in cattle industry in Korea.

Development of an enhanced bovine viral diarrhea virus subunit vaccine based on E2 glycoprotein fused to a single chain antibody which targets to antigen-presenting cells

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is an important cause of economic losses worldwide. E2 is an immunodominant protein and a promising candidate to develop subunit vaccines. To improve its immunogenicity, a truncated E2 (tE2) was fused to a single chain antibody named APCH, which targets to antigen-presenting cells. APCH-tE2 and tE2 proteins were expressed in the baculovirus system and their immunogenicity was firstly compared in guinea pigs. APCH-tE2 vaccine was the best one to evoke a humoral response, and for this reason, it was selected for a cattle vaccination experiment. All the bovines immunized with 1.5μg of APCH-tE2 developed high levels of neutralizing antibodies against BVDV up to a year post-immunization, demonstrating its significant potential as a subunit vaccine. This novel vaccine is undergoing scale-up and was transferred to the private sector. Nowadays, it is being evaluated for registration as the first Argentinean subunit vaccine for cattle.

The manufacture of veterinary clostridial vaccines

Clostridial vaccines are commonly used in most countries where farming of cattle, sheep, goats and horses occurs on a commercial scale. Vaccines to protect against clostridial diseases make up the second largest group of ruminant vaccines sold globally. In Australia the sales value of these vaccines makes up $46m of the $96m sheep and cattle vaccine market (Baron market data). This group of vaccines has become so ubiquitous, and competition between competitors so fierce, that they have been reduced to the status of commodities where they can sell for less than 20c/dose. However, this definition does not do justice to the enormous value they have generated for many decades ‘behind the farm gate'.

Protective immune response to liposome adjuvanted high potency foot-and-mouth disease vaccine in Indian cattle

BackgroundFoot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccines applied for prophylactic use in endemic areas provide short-lived immunity requiring regular boosters. Indian FMD control program recommends twice a year vaccination. Development of high potency vaccines that provide better immune response can singificantly contribute to control programme by reducing the frequency of vaccination. The present study explores new adjuvants to enhance the protective efficacy of inactivated trivalent FMD vaccines. Methodology and principal findingsVacciMax® is a novel adjuvant which uses a liposome-based oil emulsion platform. Cattle were immunized using VacciMax-A and VacciMax-B FMD vaccines and evaluated for protective efficacy. Similar groups of animals were also boosted after 6 months to study the effect of booster immunisation on protection against homologous challenge. Serum samples from immunized animals were tested by virus neutralization test (VNT) and liquid phase blocking ELISA (LPBE). After challenge, animals were screened for virus load by real-time PCR and reactivity in non-structural protein (3ABC) antibody detection ELISA to corroborate the protection data. A single dose of VacciMax-A formulation elicited higher percentage protection (63%) in VacciMax-A compared to 25% in VacciMax-B upon challenge at one-year post-vaccination. Upon boosting at 6 months also, VacciMax-A group showed higher levels of protection (100%) compared to VacciMax-B (86%), even though both the groups elicited comparable VNT titre (p=0.4964). The results also demonstrated that intramuscular route was preferrable over subcutaneous route of administration. ConclusionThe study demonstrates that immunization with VacciMax-A-IM adjuvanted FMD vaccine with high antigen payload under boosting regimen could effectively be used as potent vaccine to maintain herd immunity.

Randomised field trial to evaluate serological response after foot-and-mouth disease vaccination in Turkey

Despite years of biannual mass vaccination of cattle, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remains uncontrolled in Anatolian Turkey. To evaluate protection after mass vaccination we measured post-vaccination antibodies in a cohort of cattle (serotypes O, A and Asia-1). To obtain results reflecting typical field protection, participants were randomly sampled from across Central and Western Turkey after routine vaccination. Giving two-doses one month apart is recommended when cattle are first vaccinated against FMD. However, due to cost and logistics, this is not routinely performed in Turkey, and elsewhere. Nested within the cohort, we conducted a randomised trial comparing post-vaccination antibodies after a single-dose versus a two-dose primary vaccination course.Four to five months after vaccination, only a third of single-vaccinated cattle had antibody levels above a threshold associated with protection. A third never reached this threshold, even at peak response one month after vaccination. It was not until animals had received three vaccine doses in their lifetime, vaccinating every six months, that most (64% to 86% depending on serotype) maintained antibody levels above this threshold. By this time cattle would be >20 months old with almost half the population below this age. Consequently, many vaccinated animals will be unprotected for much of the year. Compared to a single-dose, a primary vaccination course of two-doses greatly improved the level and duration of immunity. We concluded that the FMD vaccination programme in Anatolian Turkey did not produce the high levels of immunity required. Higher potency vaccines are now used throughout Turkey, with a two-dose primary course in certain areas.Monitoring post-vaccination serology is an important component of evaluation for FMD vaccination programmes. However, consideration must be given to which antigens are present in the test, the vaccine and the field virus. Differences between these antigens affect the relationship between antibody titre and protection.

Vaccination of cattle only is sufficient to stop FMDV transmission in mixed populations of sheep and cattle.

We quantified the transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus in mixed cattle-sheep populations and the effect of different vaccination strategies. The (partial) reproduction ratios (R) in groups of non-vaccinated and vaccinated cattle and/or sheep were estimated from (published) transmission experiments. A 4 × 4 next-generation matrix (NGM) was constructed using these estimates. The dominant eigenvalue of the NGM, the R for a mixed population, was determined for populations with different proportions of cattle and sheep and for three different vaccination strategies. The higher the proportion of cattle in a mixed cattle-sheep population, the higher the R for the mixed population. Therefore the impact of vaccination of the cattle is higher. After vaccination of all animals R = 0·1 independent of population composition. In mixed cattle-sheep populations with at least 14% of cattle, vaccination of cattle only is sufficient to reduce R to < 1.