Utilizing Biomass Waste Research Articles

MORINGA OLEIFERA (MO) SEED SHELL BASED ADSORBENT FOR POTENTIAL CO2 CAPTURE: A CHARACTERIZATION STUDY

This study characterizes activated carbon synthesized from Moringa oleifera (MO) seed husk with a greener activating agent, namely sodium carbonate, (Na2CO3) compared to traditional activating agent, potassium hydroxide (KOH). Synthesized in a conventional tube furnace with nitrogen supply, the resulting activated carbon after cooling and washing, were characterized for Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analyses and compared with that produced with KOH activation. Although fewer and larger mesoporous activated carbon with smaller BET surface area (18.4659 m²/g) were formed with Na2CO3 activation), compared to that of KOH activation (235.6034 m²/g), this study highlights the ability and potential of the greener activating agent (Na2CO3) to utilize biomass waste and successfully produce activated carbon with minimum environmental hazards. The synthesized adsorbent can be explored for CO2 capture applications in future studies.

Study on Effects of Hydrothermal Heat Treatment Method on Fertilizer Efficiency of Biomass Waste

This study explores a new way of utilizing biomass waste as fertilizer based on the hydrothermal heat treatment method. Hydrothermal heat treatment was carried out on common biomass waste, including corn stalks, livestock manure, and vegetable waste. by heating them to 120°C and then to 240°C respectively, while measuring the contents of organic matter, total nutrients, and humus in hydrothermal solid products. The experimental results are as follows. With the increase in temperature, the pH of three kinds of biomass waste hydrothermal products is reduced to different degrees. The content of organic matter in the solid products of corn stalk increased with the increase of temperature, the content of organic matter in the hydrothermal products of vegetable waste was opposite to that of corn stalk, and the content of organic matter in the hydrothermal solid products of pig manure was higher than 30% at different temperatures. The total nutrient content of the hydrothermal product of corn stalk decreased first and then increased with the increase of temperature, and reached the minimum value of 10.12 g/L at 180°C. The total nutrient content of the solid product of vegetable waste showed a negative correlation with temperature, and the total nutrient content of the raw material of pig manure was 60.55 g/kg. The total nutrient content of solid products after different hydrothermal temperature treatments was 41.8–59.03 g/kg, which was lower than that of raw materials. With the increase of temperature, the humic acid content of the solid product of corn stalk first increased and then decreased, the humic acid content of hydrothermal product of pig manure continued to increase with the increase of temperature, and the humic acid content of hydrothermal product of vegetable continued to increase with the increase of temperature. At 210°C, the contents of humic acid and fulvic acid reached the maximum, and the humification rate reached the maximum of 0.856.

3D Printing with Bamboo: An Early-Stage Exploration towards Its Use in the Built Environment

Along with the circular bioeconomy principles, alternative ways of utilizing biomass waste streams are considered viable approaches to reaching sustainability goals. Accordingly, a growing body of literature is exploring new materials utilizing biomass in 3D-printing applications. This article presents early-stage research that initially investigates the usability of bamboo fibers and dust with bio-based binders in 3D printing towards its use in the design and production of the built environments. The research delves into solutions through a material tinkering approach to develop a bio-based composite material that can be used in fused deposition modeling (FDM). It includes mechanical strength analyses of printed specimens to understand the effects of different infill designs on the structural performance of objects printed using bamboo-based composite. Then, it demonstrates a design-to-production workflow that integrates a mechanically informed infill pattern within a self-supporting wall design that can be produced by 3D printing with bamboo. The workflow is presented with a partial demonstrator produced through robotic 3D printing. The article concludes with discussions and recommendations for further research.

Synthesis of natural oxygen-doped bamboo-derived hierarchical micro-mesoporous composite carbon materials using a green activation strategy

Utilizing biomass waste to synthesize hierarchical micro-mesoporous composite carbon materials for application in the field of supercapacitors realized green and sustainable energy development. This paper efficiently synthesized natural O-doped carbon materials using bamboo as biomass material by simple air pre-oxidation and secondary carbonization methods. Among them, KCl acted as a recyclable templating agent and flame retardant, facilitating the construction of mesoporous structures. The green activator CH3COOK promoted the generation of micropores. The combination of dual activation strategies (physical and chemical) contributed to the conversion of bamboo to hierarchical micro-mesoporous composite carbon materials. During pre-carbonization, air was used as a natural dopant which etched the carbon material and promoted the creation of oxygenated functional groups. The best carbon material exhibited an excellent electrochemical capacity of 321.65 F/g in 6 M KOH electrolyte. Furthermore, the symmetric supercapacitor exhibited high cycling stability (95.52 %) and outstanding power density. This work provided a new idea for preparing controllable biomass-derived carbon materials, while offering a reference for applying dual activation strategies in carbon material synthesis.

Sintesis Zeolit-Karbon Aktif Berbasis Abu Boiler Pabrik Kelapa Sawit Sebagai Adsorben Asam Lemak Bebas dan Karoten pada Crude Palm Oil

The application of palm shells and fibers as boiler fuel in palm oil mills is highly recommended to maintain a sustainable utilization cycle. The combustion of palm oil shells and fibers producing non-optimally utilized and managed ash generates a high potential for environmental pollution. This research aims to utilize palm oil mill boiler ash (ABKS) as raw material for zeolite/activated-carbon (ZKA) composite synthesis. ZKA composite uses as free fatty acids and carotenes adsorbent in the bleaching process of crude palm oil (CPO). Based on the results of characterization with EDX and XRD, ABKS contains Si; Al; C of 40.71%; 6.10%: 0.66% and indicates to contain quartz and cristobalite minerals. The calcination process with NaOH followed by a hydrothermal process at a temperature of 100 °C for 24 hours produces ZKA which is known from the results of characterization using XRD and EDX where the composite is indicated to contain analcime zeolite and carbon. Based on SEM characterization results, the morphology of the ZKA composite is porous and have good particle size distribution. Based on the results of analysis of free fatty acids and carotenes from CPO before and after bleaching, ZKA composite reduces 15.67% of free fatty acids and 16.34% of carotenes. The resulting composite has good adsorption capabilities for free fatty acids and carotenes and may be a solution for utilizing biomass waste as a circular economy application in the palm oil industry.

KMnO4-activated spinach waste biochar: An efficient adsorbent for adsorption of heavy metal ions in aqueous solution

Developing advanced carbon materials by utilizing biomass waste has attracted much attention. Herein, a novel carbon adsorbent derived from Spinach waste was prepared by using pyrolysis procedure with KMnO4 as the activator. The preparation condition such as activator mass ratio (0–0.16) and activation temperature (200–800 °C) were comprehensively studied. The optimal sample (SBC-0.08–500) showed a 7.38-fold increase in specific surface area compared to the original biochar (SBC-500). Adsorption experiments revealed that SBC-0.08–500 had efficient removal capabilities for Cd(II), Pb(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) ions. The maximum adsorption capacities for Cd(II), Pb(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) ions at 298.15 K were 1.66, 2.88, 1.31, and 2.09 mmol∙g−1, respectively. Thermodynamic results indicated that the adsorption of Cd(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) ions on SBC-0.08–500 was a spontaneous endothermic process. Additionally, SBC-0.08–500 had a high affinity for Pb(II) ions, making it a potential selective adsorbent for the removal of mixed heavy metal ions. The mechanism underlying the adsorption process was attributed to multiple interactions, including ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, and surface complexation. The as-prepared biochar by oxidative activation pyrolysis effectively solves the issues of subsequent chemical recycling and secondary pollution, thus providing greater potential for large-scale use.

Potensi Limbah Biomassa Menjadi Karbon Aktif Sebagai Upaya Resources Recovery : Studi Literatur

Reutilization of natural resources as a resource recovery effort is one aspect of sustainable development, one of which is the utilization of biomass waste. Biomass waste is waste from agricultural, plantation, livestock, and forestry processes that contain organic matter composed of carbon dioxide bonds, air, water, soil, and sunlight from plants and animals. Pollution by the accumulation or untreated biomass waste will result in the potential formation of greenhouse gases (GHG). One of the efforts is to utilize biomass waste into activated carbon by carbonizing and activating the biomass waste. The indication of why biomass waste can be used as a material for making activated carbon is because biomass waste contains lignocellulosic materials that have the ability to absorb metals and colors. The purpose of this paper is to see the potential of various kinds of biomass waste that can be utilized into activated carbon by conducting a journal review. The results of the review of various journals show that various kinds of biomass waste can be utilized into activated carbon. The lignocellulosic content of biomass waste consists of lignin in the range of 8%-53.85%, cellulose in the range of 6.92%-81%, and hemicellulose 11%-41%.

Study the Applicability of a Shelf-Type Fish Drying Machine with a Heat Source from Coconut Shell Biomass

The sun’s heat is usually utilized to dry traditional processed salted fish. However, its quality suffers as a result of the lengthy drying process. This issue can only be resolved with the help of efficient drying equipment. Advantages of artificial drying include selecting the drying capacity according to requirements, without requiring a considerable space, and managing the drying conditions. This research aims to discover an effective way to utilize biomass waste from coconut shells to speed up the drying process for salted fish. The study method involved several steps: acquiring data, analyzing the tools and machine, observing the machine, and designing a new machine. The three airspeed parameters tested in this study were 7 m/s, 10 m/s, and 12 m/s. The drying shelf reached a maximum temperature of 81.4 °C at 7 m/s, 100.3 °C at 10 m/s, and 99.4 °C at 12 m/s.

Zinc oxide‐doped carbon aerogel derived from bagasse cellulose/sodium alginate/zinc nitrate composite for dye adsorption, storage energy and electrochemical sensing

AbstractBACKGROUNDFollowing the trend of green and sustainable development, multi‐application materials utilizing biomass waste have been developed, leading that trend is carbon aerogel (CA). In this study, zinc oxide‐doped CA was synthesized from bagasse cellulose (Zn‐BCA) through simple processes: Cross‐linking to form a sol–gel system, freeze‐drying, and pyrolysis. To synthesize suitable materials, precursor and crosslinking ratios, the content of Zn2+, and pyrolysis temperature in N2 were investigated. The characteristics of ZnO were investigated through modern methods: Scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy, and energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy. The dye adsorption capacity of Zn‐BCA was evaluated through the UV–Vis method. Furthermore, the electrochemical properties are shown through cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge‐discharge, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results, and glucose sensing results were obtained through linear sweep voltammetry.RESULTSZn‐BCA shows potential for multiple applications with crystal violet pigment adsorption capacity up to 39 mg/g, specific capacitance reaching 164 F/g, and glucose sensing capabilities.CONCLUSIONThus, Zn‐BCA shows wide applicability in adsorbents and electrode materials, in addition to using bagasse biomass as green precursor to synthesize materials. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Gasified olive stone biochar as a green construction fill material

The rapid growth in biomass waste generation from industrial and agricultural sectors has emerged as a significant global challenge. One potential solution to address this challenge is to utilize biomass waste materials as sustainable construction materials, which can mitigate landfilling concerns, reduce the need for natural materials and ultimately minimize carbon emissions. This study focused on the evaluation of the engineering and environmental properties of olive stone biochar (OSB) as a green construction fill material. OSB is the solid residue resulting from biomass gasification in a waste-to-energy plant. The properties of OSB were compared to those of recycled glass (RG), a mainstream construction and demolition (C&D) waste material in Australia, for benchmarking purposes. Extensive laboratory tests were conducted on unbound OSB, RG and OSB/RG blends. The results indicated that gasified OSB was a stable biomass material and it exhibited good engineering performance when used as a construction fill material. In cases where higher strength was required, OSB can be blended with RG to achieve higher values of California bearing ratio (CBR) and resilient modulus. All OSB/RG blends were found to meet the minimum CBR requirement for subgrade materials as specified by the local road authority. Environmental tests revealed that the application of OSB as a construction fill material would not have any adverse environmental impact. This research highlighted the potential for OSB to replace virgin quarry materials in geotechnical fill and road subgrade applications. The involvement of biochar as a carbon sink in construction works also aligns well with the strategy to manufacture green materials within the construction industry, as it serves the dual purpose of locking carbon in a stable state within infrastructures and boosting waste reutilization rates simultaneously.

Biomass Derived N-Doped Porous Carbon Made from Reed Straw for an Enhanced Supercapacitor.

Developing advanced carbon materials by utilizing biomass waste has attracted much attention. However, porous carbon electrodes based on the electronic-double-layer-capacitor (EDLC) charge storage mechanism generally presents unsatisfactory capacitance and energy density. Herein, an N-doped carbon material (RSM-0.33-550) was prepared by directly pyrolyzing reed straw and melamine. The micro- and meso-porous structure and the rich active nitrogen functional group offered more ion transfer and faradaic capacitance. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) measurements were used to characterize the biomass-derived carbon materials. The prepared RSM-0.33-550 possessed an N content of 6.02% and a specific surface area of 547.1 m2 g-1. Compared with the RSM-0-550 without melamine addition, the RSM-0.33-550 possessed a higher content of active nitrogen (pyridinic-N) in the carbon network, thus presenting an increased number of active sites for charge storage. As the anode for supercapacitors (SCs) in 6 M KOH, RSM-0.33-550 exhibited a capacitance of 202.8 F g-1 at a current density of 1 A g-1. At a higher current density of 20 A g-1, it still retained a capacitance of 158 F g-1. Notably, it delivered excellent stability with capacity retention of 96.3% at 20 A g-1 after 5000 cycles. This work not only offers a new electrode material for SCs, but also gives a new insight into rationally utilizing biomass waste for energy storage.

Review dalam Pembuatan Arang Aktif Berbasis Limbah Pertanian Dengan Microwave

Conventional handling of biomass waste, such as burning biomass, can cause other problems, and is not effective. Another common handling method is utilizing biomass waste. Second, conventional handling does not significantly reduce the amount of biomass waste. Microwave heating uses several power parameters and activation time to determine the effect of power and activation time on iodine number and surface area [25]. Activated charcoal is used as a raw material because it is hard charcoal and has good quality, and microwaves are used because it saves energy and time. Microwave treatment to study the effect of concentration and time of microwave irradiation separately on iodine number and adsorption capacity. The results of the FTIR spectra show that activated carbon has an –OH group. The results of the adsorption test showed that the activated carbon that had been prepared was able to absorb ions at the optimum concentration. Adsorption isotherm studies were carried out using the Langmuir equation. Microwave irradiation time also has a significant effect on the quality of activated carbon in the microwave irradiation time range

Socialization and training on production of bio-charcoal made from biomass waste using a double-tube reactor

Proper handling of biomass waste can turn waste into something beneficial for society. One way that can be done is to convert biomass waste into quality biochar for energy needs and agriculture as a planting medium. This partnership program is intended to provide education and practical knowledge to the community regarding utilizing biomass waste for biochar production using a double tube reactor. The activities consisted of socialization of the impact of the abandonment of biomass and the benefits of biomass for household energy needs, as well as practical experience of carbonizing biomass by directly involving partner communities. This activity was carried out at Pambulaan Jaya Village Hall attended by 32 community partners and 9 teams from Halu Oleo University. This partnership activity is very relevant for people in the village where most of the population lives as rice and field farmers. The practical knowledge on carbonizing biomass waste was conducted in two days for the two types of biomasses, namely wood chips and coconut shells. The community was very enthusiastic about continuing the carbonization process after they learned about the great benefits of this biochar product for household energy needs, growing media for plantations, and increasing their income.

Efficient peroxymonosulfate activation by magnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticle immobilized on biochar toward sulfamethoxazole degradation: Performance, mechanism and pathway

Utilizing biomass waste to create highly efficient biochar-based catalysts has drawn intensively interest since it adheres to the idea of waste recycling in environmental conservation. Herein, CoFe2O4 nanoparticles immobilized on biochar (BC) derived from rape straw were synthesized and applied in degrading sulfamethoxazole (SMX) by activating peroxymonosulfate (PMS). Experimental results indicated that the 30 wt% CoFe2O4/BC composite catalyst had the best catalytic activity with the SMX degradation efficiency of 93% within 20 min, which was probably the fact that BC as a carrier not only effectively inhibited the agglomeration of CoFe2O4 nanoparticles and increased the active sites, but also could simultaneously participate in the catalytic degradation reaction as an activator of PMS. In addition, cycle experiments illustrated that the as-prepared catalyst possessed the excellent stability, and the magnetic property measurements implied that they were convenient for separation and recovery. According to quenching experiments, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and electrochemical studies, both radical and non-radical process participated into degrading SMX, where the generated SO4·-, ·OH and O2·- as the major radical active species while 1O2 and direct electron transfer were responsible for the non-radical route. Besides, using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis, a potential SMX degradation pathway was suggested. The present CoFe2O4/BC composite would be a promising PMS activation catalyst for environmental remediation.

Fabrication of Earth-Abundant Electrocatalysts Based on Green-Chemistry Approaches to Achieve Efficient Alkaline Water Splitting—A Review

The fabrication of earth-abundant electrocatalysts by green-chemistry approaches for electrochemical water splitting could diminish or alleviate the use or generation of hazardous substances, which could be highly desirable to achieve efficient, green alkaline water electrolysis for clean energy production (H2). This review started by introducing the importance of the green-chemistry approaches. Later, this paper reviewed the fabrication of high-performance earth-abundant electrocatalysts using green-chemistry approaches for electrochemical water splitting (HER and OER). Moreover, this review discussed the green-chemistry approaches for the fabrication of earth-abundant electrocatalysts including phosphide/pyrophosphate-, carbon-, oxide-, OH/OOH/LDH-, alloy/B/nitride-, and sulfide/selenide (chalcogenide)-based earth-abundant electrocatalysts. Moreover, this review discussed various green-chemistry approaches, including those used to alleviate toxic PH3 gas emission during the fabrication of transition-metal phosphide-based electrocatalysts, to design energy-efficient synthesis routes (especially room-temperature synthesis), to utilize cheap or biodegradable substrates, and to utilize biomass waste or biomass or biodegradable materials as carbon sources for the fabrication of earth-abundant electrocatalysts. Thus, the construction of earth-abundant electrocatalysts by green-chemistry approaches for electrochemical water splitting could pave an efficient, green way for H2 production.

Production of new fertilizers by combining distiller's grains waste and wet-process phosphoric acid: Synthesis, characterization, mechanisms and application

In China, a large amount of distiller's grains produced by liquor production need to be effectively utilized. Herein, wet-process phosphoric acid was used to treat distiller's grains to achieve the material exchange between them. And water-soluble suspended fertilizer products with sufficient P2O5 (34.57%), N (7.31%), chelated trace elements (4.84%), amino acids (0.42%) and carbohydrates (2.73%) can be prepared by adding 8% EDTA (w: w) in the recovered phosphoric acid. High concentration, high Zeta potential (52.46 mV) and good thixotropy made it resistant to storage and transportation (>30 day). In addition, the residual solid residue capturing sufficient P, Fe, Al and Mg was pyrolyzed into biochar sustained-release phosphate fertilizer. TG-FTIR, in-situ DRAFTS, XRD, Raman, and SEM-EDS demonstrated that polyphosphates and biochar skeleton can be suitably synthesized simultaneously to achieve in situ binding at 400 °C. Long-term observation by ion chromatography showed that polyphosphate could be slowly released from the biochar structure and gradually converted to Ortho-P through hydrolysis reaction. In water, Ortho-P, Fe, Al and Mg can slowly release out from biochar fertilizer within 60 days, whose maximum release rates were 91.72%, 61.5%, 83.5% and 83.6%, respectively. It was confirmed that biochar structure was innovatively combined with polyphosphate to realize the slow-release characteristics and activate impurity ions to become microelement nutrients. This study proposed a clean production strategy to effectively utilize biomass waste residue, improve the utilization rate of phosphorus and impurity ions, and show the potential of carbon sequestration.

Synthesis and Effectiveness of Snake Fruit (Salacca zalacca) Seed Charcoal Bio-Adsorbent in Reducing Remazol Brilliant Blue

The manufacture of adsorbents by utilizing biomass waste continues to be developed to obtain alternative materials with high effectiveness. Adsorbents should be made from easily available materials, have low operating costs, have easy manufacturing processes, and be environmentally friendly. Snake fruit seeds have economic value to be used as activated carbon in the adsorption method for the reduction of Remazol Brilliant Blue. Snake fruit seed charcoal already has a high activated carbon. The activated carbon pores were widened through acid activation, to increase the adsorption capacity of Remazol blue. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of bio-adsorbent concentration of snake fruit seed charcoal in absorbing Remazol Brilliant Blue levels. Snake fruit seed charcoal has been activated with 1 M HCL to become a bio-adsorbent of snake fruit seed charcoal with various stirrings of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, rpm. Characterization of bio-adsorbent of snake fruit seed charcoal has been carried out by spectrophotometry UV-VIS, FTIR, SEM, and SEM-EDX. Snake fruit seed was a carbon source that can be used as a base material for activated carbon and adsorbent for Remazol Brilliant Blue dye. So, it has reduced the impact of textile dye waste pollution.

Synthesis and Characterization of Activated Carbon from Waste Compedak Fruit (Artocarpus Champeden) Activated H3PO4 as Adsorbent of Methylene Blue

Synthesis of activated carbon from cempedak peel waste is carried out to utilize biomass waste. This study aimed to synthesize and characterize activated carbon from cempedak peel waste. The synthesis was carried out by chemical activation using phosphoric acid with a dry impregnation ratio of 1:4 (g sample:g H3PO4). Samples impregnated for 24 hours were then heated at 250℃—and then calcined at 350℃ and 450℃. The XRD and FTIR characterization results indicated that the activated carbon obtained had an amorphous structure and the activated carbon obtained had hydroxyl, carbonyl, and carboxylic groups. Activated carbon with the highest yield was obtained at a temperature of 350, namely 43%. The results of determining the water content of activated carbon obtained are 8.36% at 350 0C and 7.1% at 450 ℃. The value of water content and ash content of activated carbon from the skin of this cempedak fruit has met the Indonesian National Standard (SNI 06-3730-1995). The best-activated carbon yield was at a calcination temperature of 450, with the percentage of adsorption efficiency on methylene blue of 98.88%.

Selective Production of Phenol-Rich Bio-Oil From Corn Straw Waste by Direct Microwave Pyrolysis Without Extra Catalyst.

We report a sustainable strategy to cleanly address biomass waste with high-value utilization. Phenol-rich bio-oil is selectively produced by direct pyrolysis of biomass waste corn straw (CS) without use of any catalyst in a microwave device. The effects of temperature and power on the yield and composition of pyrolysis products are investigated in detail. Under microwave irradiation, a very fast pyrolysis rate and bio-oil yield as high as 46.7 wt.% were obtained, which were competitive with most of the previous results. GC-MS analysis showed that temperature and power (heating rate) had great influences on the yield of bio-oil and the selectivity of phenolic compounds. The optimal selectivity of phenols in bio-oil was 49.4 area% by adjusting the operating parameters. Besides, we have made detailed statistics on the change trend of some components and different phenols in bio-oil and given the law and reason of their change with temperature and power. The in situ formed highly active biochar from CS with high content of potassium (1.34 wt.%) is responsible for the improvement of phenol-rich oils. This study offers a sustainable way to fully utilize biomass waste and promote the achievement of carbon neutrality.

Steam Power Plant Powered by Wood Sawdust Waste: A Prototype of Energy Crisis Solution

The used of electricity from year to year is increasing. One of the alternative to power plants with abundant availability is wood waste. The aims of this study is to: (1) design a wood waste PLTU prototype as an alternative biomass-based energy resource and an effort to reduce wood waste, (2) describe the calorific value, the resulting electrical voltage, and the duration of the lamp flame generated from wood waste fuel. Teak (Tectona grandis), surian wood waste (Toona sureni), and a mixture of both. This descriptive research includes 3 stages, which is analysis, design, and testing. Through this research, a prototype of a wood waste steam power plant was successfully designed by utilizing biomass waste fuel. The results showed that the calorific value, the resulting electrical voltage, and the resistance time of the lamp varied in the wood samples used. This indicates that the wood samples used have the potential to be used as an alternative to biomass-based energy resources.