Utilization Of Agricultural Resources Research Articles

A Critical Review of the Status of Current Greenhouse Technology in China and Development Prospects

China’s greenhouse industry has undergone thousands of years of development history, although the development of modern greenhouses arrived late. After decades of development in China, its greenhouse industry is at the global forefront. China’s greenhouse industry is experiencing rapid development, transformation, and upgrading. China ranks first in the world in terms of the greenhouse industry. These greenhouses are mainly used for vegetable cultivation, playing an important role in the utilization of agricultural resources and food production. In 2023, the cumulative area of greenhouses nationwide was 1835.87 million ha. In this paper, we present the latest developments in the greenhouse sector. More specifically, we present an overview of the development of the greenhouse market, greenhouse production, the greenhouse industry, and technology development. Current problems are underpinned, development opportunities and prospects are analyzed, and measures and specific proposals are detailed for the technological development of the greenhouse sector, both for increasing product quantity and quality.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES TO DESIGN FUTURE CROPS: GATEWAY TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN 21ST CENTURY

The global food production system is facing numerous challenges due to factors such as population growth, climate change, limited resources, and environmental preservation. To address these challenges, various strategies can be employed to develop future crops that are more productive, nutritious, and resilient. One strategy is to improve the yield potential of existing crops by developing new high-yielding cultivars. This can be achieved through the development of new varieties that can produce more grain under optimal conditions. Additionally, improving the nutritional quality of crops is important to address nutrient deficiencies. Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering methods can be used to develop crops with enhanced nutritional value. Efficient utilization of agricultural resources is another important aspect of crop improvement. This includes developing crops that use water and nutrients more efficiently, reducing the need for irrigation and fertilizers, and minimizing environmental impacts. Increasing the resistance of crops to pests, diseases, and extreme weather events can also help reduce the use of pesticides and minimize crop losses. The domestication of wild or semi-wild plants through genetic manipulation offers new opportunities for crop design. These plants may have high nutritional value, stress tolerance, and specialized metabolites that can be incorporated into cultivated crops. Similarly, the domestication of orphan or neglected plants can contribute to crop improvement by incorporating unique traits. Genetic improvement through the transfer of genes from wild relatives or other species can also enhance crop productivity. Advancements in genomics and genetic technologies can aid in the identification and transfer of beneficial alleles. Agronomic improvements, such as maximizing the effectiveness of crop protection agents and fertilizers while minimizing their environmental impact, can also contribute to crop performance. The emerging field of synthetic biology offers opportunities for developing novel biological devices and systems that can further enhance crop productivity and resilience. Overall, these strategies can help address the challenges faced by the global food production system.

Agricultural resources in focus: Eco-friendly bioplastic synthesis from corn starch

The current research focuses on the development of bioplastics from agricultural resources like banana peels, potato peels and corn starch. The specific focus here is the utilization of agricultural resources into bioplastics as an eco-friendly alternative to conventional plastics. The main objective of this research is to explore the manufacturing of biodegradable plastics by utilizing these materials. The formation of bioplastics from banana and potato peels is not as successful, while notably consistent formation for bioplastics derived from corn starch. The additional research has been conducted on corn starch based bioplastic films. The impact of various glycerol amounts (0.2 g to 0.8 g) was studied concerning the measurement of tensile strength (1.52 MPa to 5.08 MPa) in corn starch-derived bioplastics. The physico-chemical properties, availability of FT-IR functional groups (C-O-H, O-H, C-H, C = O, CONH, C-O, and C-O-C) and SEM analysis are confirming bioplastic films surface derived from corn starch and compared to existing literature. Furthermore, the research includes solubility and biodegradability tests were determined the most suitable and preferred agricultural resources for biodegradable plastic production.

Soil Salinity, Its Inversion and Spatial Distribution Characteristics in Agricultural Fields Using Remote Sensing Data

Soil salinization is an urgent problem in the arid and semi-arid regions that damages soil ecology and affects agricultural growths. Timely supervision and monitoring of soil salinity are essential to reach the most sustainable improvement goals in arid and semi-arid regions. In the present study, the soil of Aktau region in Xinjiang, China was collected to build a remote sensing based inversion model for identifying soil salinity hazards. Results showed that Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Difference Vegetation Index (DVI) were correlated (P < 0.01) with the model inversion, having correlation coefficients of -0.735, -0.858, and -0.774, respectively. All these were suitable for the construction of the soil salinity inversion model where the optimal parameters of model accuracy were above 85% and prediction results were accurate credible and consistent with the measured data. The NDWI extracted from multispectral images was used as the key parameter of the soil salinity inversion model, which could obtain a better spatial distribution of soil salinity. The remote sensing inversion model of soil salinity provides a theoretical basis for the management of soil salinization and sustainable utilization of agricultural resources in the Aktau region of Xinjiang. Bangladesh J. Bot. 52(2): 437-443, 2023 (June) Special

Soil Salinity, Its Inversion and Spatial Distribution Characteristics in Agricultural Fields Using Remote Sensing Data

Soil salinization is an urgent problem in the arid and semi-arid regions that damages soil ecology and affects agricultural growths. Timely supervision and monitoring of soil salinity are essential to reach the most sustainable improvement goals in arid and semi-arid regions. In the present study, the soil of Aktau region in Xinjiang, China was collected to build a remote sensing based inversion model for identifying soil salinity hazards. Results showed that Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Difference Vegetation Index (DVI) were correlated (P < 0.01) with the model inversion, having correlation coefficients of -0.735, -0.858, and -0.774, respectively. All these were suitable for the construction of the soil salinity inversion model where the optimal parameters of model accuracy were above 85% and prediction results were accurate credible and consistent with the measured data. The NDWI extracted from multispectral images was used as the key parameter of the soil salinity inversion model, which could obtain a better spatial distribution of soil salinity. The remote sensing inversion model of soil salinity provides a theoretical basis for the management of soil salinization and sustainable utilization of agricultural resources in the Aktau region of Xinjiang. Bangladesh J. Bot. 52(2): 437-443, 2023 (June) Special

Evaluation of wheat (Triticum aestivum) genotypes for higher yield and enhanced nitrogen use efficiency in Indo-Gangetic Plains

Extensive research has been conducted on various nitrogen (N) management approaches to fulfil the growing needs of cereals while enhancing the efficiency of agricultural resource utilization. Nevertheless, the intensive agricultural model continues to prioritize the achievement of high crop yields and improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) as opposing targets. The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether a corresponding increase in N application is necessary to achieve higher crop yields. The study evaluated the effects of 3 N treatments (N0, N75, and N150) on 10 wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes during 2020–21 and 2021–22 at research farm of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. In both growing seasons, the highest grain yield (GY) of 5.3 t/ha, agronomic efficiency (AEN) of 28.7 kg grain/kg N, and partial factor productivity of applied N (PFPN) of 60.2 kg grain/kg N were obtained by the HD 3249 genotype, followed by HD 3117. The application of N75 and N150 increased grain yields by 72.3 and142.6%, respectively, over N0. Significant relationships were observed between GY, PFPN and AEN at all N levels, and a decreasing trend was observed in both PFPN and AEN as the N application rate increased. The study results suggest that the adoption of genotype-specific nitrogen (N) rates could provide a mutually beneficial solution to meet the growing demand for food while improving NUE. Overall, based on GY and AEN, the research findings indicate that the genotypes HD 3249 and HD 3117 are efficient candidates for N use, with the potential for higher yields and NUE in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India.

Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Soil Salinization and Its Impact on Cultivated Land Productivity in the BOHAI Rim Region

Soil salinization can have an inhibitory effect on crop productivity and pose a serious threat to regional agricultural resource utilization and sustainable development. However, there are scarce studies on the quantitative impact of soil salinization on crop productivity. The purpose of this study is to identify the spatial and temporal characteristics of the cultivated land, the soil salinization degree, and the net primary productivity (NPP) of vegetation in the Shandong region around the Bohai Sea and to couple the quantitative relationship between soil salinization and the productivity of the cultivated land. We found that the amount of cultivated land in the study area gradually decreased from 2001 to 2019. The degree of soil salinization in the cultivated land in the north of the study area increased slightly from 2001 to 2005 and decreased continuously after 2011. The NPP value of the cultivated land increased, fluctuating from 2001 to 2019. The spatial distribution of the NPP value was generally lower in the north than in the south, with Dongying District as the boundary. In addition, in different soil salt content (g/kg) intervals, the change trends in cultivated land NPP varied. When the salt content of cultivated soil was in the range of 0–3 g/kg, 3–7 g/kg, or 7–15 g/kg, for every 1 g/kg increase in salt content, the NPP value decreased by 43.62 gC m−2a−1, 30.36 gC m−2a−1, and 44.19 gC m−2a−1, respectively. These results are expected to provide decision-making support for strengthening the dynamic monitoring and regulation of cultivated land salinization and promoting sustainable utilization of salinized cultivated land in the coastal areas to alleviate the food crisis.

Can Farmers’ Satisfaction with Green Production Policies Be Explained by Policy Structure and Policy Implementation? Evidence from China

The implementation of green production policies (GPPs) is an important guarantee to improve the utilization of agricultural resources and adapt to climate change and plays an important role in supporting and guiding farmers. The overall goal of this study is to explore the mechanisms of the impacts of policy structure and implementation on the satisfaction of farmers with GPPs. Data analysis was based on 1180 observations collected from a field survey in Anhui Province, China, in 2021. The results revealed that the satisfaction of farmers with GPPs is not high. Policy structure affects the satisfaction of farmers with GPPs, and there are differences in the impacts of agricultural service, financial, technical, subsidy, and supervision policies. The results also showed that a positive evaluation of policy implementation by farmers can significantly improve their satisfaction with GPPs, and there are differences in the effectiveness of evaluating the support intensity, degree of promotion, policy sustainability, and implementation effect. Further analysis revealed that the impact of policy structure on the satisfaction of farmers with GPPs is transmitted through policy implementation evaluation. The impacts of policy structure and policy implementation on the satisfaction of farmers with GPPs are heterogeneous in terms of gender, age, and education. Finally, some policy recommendations are proposed to construct GPPs for farmers across the entire industrial chain, increase policy promotion efforts, ensure the sustainability of policy formulation and implementation, and consider farmers’ subjective evaluations of policy implementation effects. The results of this study and the related policy recommendations can provide support for the formulation and optimization of agricultural GPPs in China and other countries.

Earthworm activities enhance taro production by reducing weed infestation through taro–earthworm coculture

Rapid global population growth increases the human demand for food. Reliance on the high input of agrochemicals in agricultural production has been shown to be unsustainable and cost ineffective. The combination of planting and breeding can maximize the utilization of agricultural resources. A novel crop–earthworm coculture model has been gradually practiced in urban agriculture in eastern China. We conducted a four-year successive study of taro–earthworm coculture farming to determine the ecological and economic benefits of the model. Our results indicated that earthworm activities in the taro–earthworm coculture system increased taro yield, economic value and net income by depleting the weed seed bank, mitigating weed infestation, and reducing the need for weeding. Compared with those in mono-taro farming, the four-year mean seed bank densities of total weeds, grassy weeds and broadleaf weeds in taro–earthworm farming decreased by 37.1%, 44.4% and 32.2%, respectively; the weed density, biomass, species richness and diversity and need for weeding decreased by 54.1%, 48.3%, 20.8%, 8.2% and 39.7%, respectively; and the taro yield, economic value and net income increased by 19.7%, 19.7% and 50.7%, respectively. Our study suggests that earthworm activities provide ecosystem services in agricultural systems, and the coculture of taro and earthworms enhances crop production by mitigating weed infestation and improving environmental quality.

Cotton-Based Rotation, Intercropping, and Alternate Intercropping Increase Yields by Improving Root–Shoot Relations

Crop rotation and intercropping are important ways to increase agricultural resource utilization efficiency and crop productivity. Alternate intercropping, or transposition intercropping, is a new intercropping pattern in which two crops are intercropped in a wide strip with planting positions switched annually on the same land. Transposition intercropping combines intercropping and rotation and thus performs better than either practice alone. Compared with traditional intercropping or rotation, it can increase yield and net return by 17–21% and 10–23%, respectively, and the land equivalent ratio (LER) by 20% to 30%. In crop growth and development, a balanced root–shoot relation is essential to obtain satisfactory yields and yield quality. Intercropping, rotation, or the combination can alter the original root–shoot relation by changing the ecology and physiology of both root and shoot to achieve a rebalancing of the relation. The crop yield and yield quality are thus regulated by the root–shoot interactions and the resulting rebalancing. The review examines the effects of above- and belowground interactions and rebalancing of root–shoot relations on crop yields under cotton-based intercropping, rotation, and particularly alternate intercropping with the practices combined. The importance of signaling in regulating the rebalancing of root–shoot relations under intercropping, rotation, and the combination was also explored as a possible focus of future research on intercropping and rotation.

Integrating LCA and network model to understand food-energy-water nexus in the Ningxia, China

It is necessary to link and feedback the FEW-Nexus in order to find a sustainable method of food, energy, and water (FEW) supply. We better understand nexus by integrating LCA and network models based on previous work in this paper. The results show that (1) 1.16 billion kg of grain were traded in Ningxia in 2020. The grain export area is primarily in Ningxia’s central and southern regions, and grain trade relieves the pressure on grain demand in the north. (2) Grain trade has resulted in the movement and reconfiguration of water footprints and carbon footprints, alleviating some of the pressure on local water resources. However, some counties have low agricultural resource utilization efficiency. For example, Xiji failed to use water effectively in water-rich areas to meet the needs of water-scarce areas. (3) The spatial association network of the FEW-Nexus is unbalanced, and the associated channels should be enriched. Ningxia can improve the utilization of energy and water resources by strengthening key nodes of food flow.

Research on the Eco-Efficiency of Rice Production and Its Improvement Path: A Case Study from China.

The eco-efficiency of rice production is an important indicator in the measurement of sustainable rice development. Scientific evaluation of the eco-efficiency of rice production facilitates accurate evaluation of the real level of rice ecosystems to realize efficient utilization of agricultural resources. This paper measured the eco-efficiency of farms growing rice using both the life cycle assessment (LCA) and the data envelopment analysis (DEA) methods based on survey data from 370 farms mainly growing rice conducted in 2020 in the Hubei Province, the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in China. Then, sensitivity analysis and scenario analysis were carried out on the comprehensive index of the rice environmental impact and eco-efficiency of rice production, respectively. The results indicate that the comprehensive index of the rice environmental impact was 2.0971. Water toxicity, soil toxicity and eutrophication were the main influencing factors. The mean value of the eco-efficiency reached 0.51. More specifically, the proportion of farms in the low-, middle- and high-efficiency groups was 87.03%, 1.89% and 11.08%, respectively, with mean values up to 0.42, 0.86 and 1.14, respectively. A sensitivity analysis revealed that the pesticide sensitivity was higher than the fertilizer sensitivity in terms of the environmental impact sensitivity of rice systems. When comprehensively considering environmental and economic benefits, the fertilizer sensitivity was higher than that of pesticides. Moreover, reducing the application of both fertilizers and pesticides by 50% could promote the eco-efficiency of rice production systems by 6%, and the value could reach 0.54. Thus, reducing the application of fertilizers and pesticides and improving the utilization efficiency are effective ways to improve green rice production.

Spatial-temporal characteristics and driving factors of the chemical fertilizer supply/demand correlation network in China.

The rational allocation of chemical fertilizer resources is of strategic importance in mitigating agricultural source pollution and achieving agricultural green development. The spatiotemporal correlation of chemical fertilizer supply/demand and its determinants remains unclear. In this study, based on the inter-provincial chemical fertilizer supply/demand panel data of China from 1994 to 2018, an improved gravity model was employed to determine provincial chemical fertilizer supply/demand correlations. Finally, the chemical fertilizer supply/demand evolution and its driving factors were analyzed using social network analysis and a quadratic assignment procedure. The results indicated that (1) the intensity of the spatial relationship of inter-provincial chemical fertilizer supply/demand increased in a fluctuating fashion, but there was still room for improvement. The network structure presented good stability, and the spillover effect exhibited multiple superposition characteristics; (2) the spatial correlation network of inter-provincial chemical fertilizer supply/demand presented a "core-periphery" distribution pattern of the supply, demand, and balance areas. The division of blocks in the network changed in time and space, and some provinces changed their roles and positions in the network during development; (3) chemical fertilizer-related policies (e.g., Exemption Agricultural Tax, Notice on the resumption of value added tax policy on fertilizers, and Rural Revitalization Strategy) have played a positive role in the formation and development of the interprovincial spatial correlation network of chemical fertilizer supply/demand in China; (4) natural conditions and socioeconomic factors interact to promote the formation of the spatial correlation network of chemical fertilizer supply/demand. The differences in the scale of the rural labor force, the scale of agricultural mechanization, the agricultural planting structure, the populations, and urbanization levels all had a significant impact on it. The identification of the spatial characteristics of chemical fertilizer supply/demand correlation networks offers a new perspective on taking various measures to realize the cross-regional coordination of chemical fertilizer resources, strengthen the protection and utilization of agricultural resources, and promote green agricultural development.

Analysis of regional agricultural carbon emission efficiency and influencing factors: Case study of Hubei Province in China.

In recent years, China’s industrial economy has grown rapidly and steadily. Concurrently, carbon emissions have gradually increased, among which agricultural production is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. It is necessary to reduce agricultural carbon emissions by improving their efficiency to achieve the global goal of peak carbon dioxide emissions in 2030. From a dynamic and static point of view, this study puts agricultural carbon emissions into the evaluation index system of agricultural carbon emission efficiency and analyzes the agricultural carbon emission efficiency and its influencing factors in Hubei Province. First, the unexpected output Slacks-based measure (SBM) model in data envelopment analysis was used to evaluate the agricultural carbon emission efficiency of Hubei Province in 2018 and compared it with other provinces horizontally. Second, the Malmquist–Luenberger index was used to analyze the comprehensive efficiency of agricultural carbon emissions in Hubei Province from 2004 to 2018. The role of technological progress and technical efficiency change in the development of low-carbon agriculture in Hubei Province was analyzed. The results showed that agricultural production efficiency in Hubei Province improved from 2004 to 2018, and the overall level was slightly higher than the average level in China. However, agriculture has not eliminated the extensive development modes of high input, low efficiency, high emission, and high pollution. The efficiency of technological progress in agricultural resource utilization in Hubei Province was close to the optimal level. The improvement space was small. Hence, the low efficiency of agricultural technology is a key factor restricting the improvement of agricultural production efficiency. The results provide a reference for low-carbon agricultural policy formulation and expand the policy choice path. This has practical significance.

Effects of Climate Change on Climate Suitability of Green Orange Planting in Hainan Island, China

Hainan Island is endowed with unique climatic and geographical conditions in China. Green orange is a characteristic fruit and plays an important role in local agricultural production of the island. However, few studies have been available regarding the climatic suitability index of green orange planting suitable regions in the island. Based on 30 years (1980 to 2019) of climatic data from 19 meteorological stations in the island, this study established spatial analysis models with topographical data, land use and GIS spatial analysis. Based on climate suitability function, this study established the climate suitability models of temperature, sunshine, precipitation, accumulated temperature and comprehensive suitability model for green orange planting. The Climate suitability index model for green orange planting suitable zoning areas was developed using a natural point segmentation method, and future climate change scenarios were adopted for evaluating the trends of climate suitable areas. The results revealed that the most suitable areas for planting green orange are mainly located at the eastern central region in the island. The climate suitability index ranged from 0.9 to 1.0 in the most suitable regions. The suitable area is mainly distributed in the eastern part, most of the central and western parts of the island, with the climate suitability index ranging from 0.7–0.9. However, the population density in the area is large, and the planting land is limited. The sub-suitable area is mainly located in the coastal areas of the western island, and the high-altitude areas in the central and western regions of the island, with the climate suitability index varying from 0.4 to 0.7. The unsuitable area is mainly distributed in the central mountainous area, with the climate suitability index being 0.0–0.4. The suitability of temperature showed decreasing trend, and the suitability of precipitation gradually moved from the east to the central region under future climate change scenarios. This study is helpful in promoting the development and utilization of agricultural resources and the fine zoning of green orange planting climate suitability in the island.

Long-range real-time monitoring strategy for Precision Irrigation in urban and rural farming in society 5.0

Urbanization is the biggest challenge as by 2050 it is projected that more the 60% of the world population will inhabit cities. This will present stress to the available city’s resources like transportation, health system, economy including agricultural products importantly safe food supply. For these concerns, advanced solutions are required with a human-centric approach for sustain- able development. Society 5.0, smart cities, and urban agriculture are the latest concepts with the objective of sustainable development. Most of the article on smart cities fails to put focus on different aspects, objectives, and importance of urban agriculture. This article disclosed various aspects and objectives of Society 5.0, a smart city, and the concept and importance of urban agriculture. Agriculture other than facing the challenge of huge urbanization also faces inefficient utilization of scarce resources with inefficient agricultural practices particularly irrigation water. The present article discloses the importance of efficient agricultural resource utilization particularly irrigation water and provides a design for Precision Irrigation for field monitoring. The discussed design offers a Long Range, Real-Time, and scalable solution for field irrigation requirement monitoring based on soil and weather conditions and addresses most of the challenges facing in-field monitoring such as range coverage of sensor nodes and scalability, data recording, power, and cost.

Microbial Responses to the Reduction of Chemical Fertilizers in the Rhizosphere Soil of Flue-Cured Tobacco.

The overuse of chemical fertilizers has resulted in the degradation of the physicochemical properties and negative changes in the microbial profiles of agricultural soil. These changes have disequilibrated the balance in agricultural ecology, which has resulted in overloaded land with low fertility and planting obstacles. To protect the agricultural soil from the effects of unsustainable fertilization strategies, experiments of the reduction of nitrogen fertilization at 10, 20, and 30% were implemented. In this study, the bacterial responses to the reduction of nitrogen fertilizer were investigated. The bacterial communities of the fertilizer-reducing treatments (D10F, D20F, and D30F) were different from those of the control group (CK). The alpha diversity was significantly increased in D20F compared to that of the CK. The analysis of beta diversity revealed variation of the bacterial communities between fertilizer-reducing treatments and CK, when the clusters of D10F, D20F, and D30F were separated. Chemical fertilizers played dominant roles in changing the bacterial community of D20F. Meanwhile, pH, soil organic matter, and six enzymes (soil sucrase, catalase, polyphenol oxidase, urease, acid phosphatase, and nitrite reductase) were responsible for the variation of the bacterial communities in fertilizer-reducing treatments. Moreover, four of the top 20 genera (unidentified JG30-KF-AS9, JG30-KF-CM45, Streptomyces, and Elsterales) were considered as key bacteria, which contributed to the variation of bacterial communities between fertilizer-reducing treatments and CK. These findings provide a theoretical basis for a fertilizer-reducing strategy in sustainable agriculture, and potentially contribute to the utilization of agricultural resources through screening plant beneficial bacteria from native low-fertility soil.

Comprehensive Socio-Ecologo-Economic Assessment of Agricultural Efficiency in China

Modern agriculture aims to coordinate the contradiction between the development and utilization of agricultural resources and environmental protection by using scientific and technological achievements and management methods, so as to obtain good ecological benefit, social benefit and economic benefit. In this paper, 12 indexes are selected to build an evaluation system of comprehensive agricultural benefit. The agricultural data from 2013 to 2019 are analyzed, and the evaluation results are obtained: China’s comprehensive agricultural benefit kept growing, social benefit and economic benefit continued to grow, and ecological benefit began to grow rapidly in 2018 after experiencing a small decline. According to the evaluation results, the problems existing in China’s agricultural development are found, and the corresponding countermeasures and suggestions are put forward.

Development of community-based community-based agrotourism tea gardens for optimization of agricultural resources

The James tea plantation is located in Girikerto Village, Sine District, Ngawi Regency, East Java. The number of tourists at the Jamus Tea Garden Tourism Object has decreased due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to examine the potential development of the Jamus Teagarden as a community-based agricultural tourism attraction as an effort to optimize agriculture resources. This study used a descriptive research method with a qualitative approach. Field observations, in-depth interviews, Focus Group Discussions, and document studies were carried out in data collection. Data validity uses data source triangulation. Agrotourism potential development is needed to utilize agricultural resources without damaging the environment. The potency of the Jamus tea garden in the utilization of agricultural resources can be optimized through the role of the community in various sectors. Especially in the economic sector, without any benefits, tourism business actors, including the community, will not be motivated to realize the success of agrotourism. The development of Agrotourism must also be primarily based on the environment. The environment must be maintained and preserved so that it can function sustainably.

Detection of paddy rice cropping systems in southern China with time series Landsat images and phenology-based algorithms

ABSTRACT Southern China is a major rice-producing region where mixed rice cropping systems (single cropping rice (SCR) and double-cropping rice (DCR)) are widely practiced. An accurate estimation of the spatiotemporal changes in cropping systems is important for understanding the dynamic of paddy rice system and for developing suitable agricultural policies. However, few studies focus on mapping long-term changes in cropping systems in this subtropical region. The objective of this research is 1) to improve the phenology- and pixel-based paddy rice mapping (PPPM) algorithm by simultaneously considering the phenology signatures in the rice transplanting and heading periods; 2) to better identify different rice cropping systems and analyze their changes. Based on the improved PPPM method, we generated annual maps of SCR and DCR in southern China with image collection of Landsat 5, 7, and 8 from 1999 to 2019 using the Google Earth Engine platform. The overall accuracies of cropping system results for the study regions range from 81.0% to 98.1% depending on the areas of interest created in our study area. Then, the spatiotemporal patterns of the annual SCR and DCR time series were analyzed. In 2000, the total rice area was 208,614.6 km2, decreased sharply in 2003, and thereafter, the total increase in the paddy rice area fluctuated until 2011. From 2000 to 2019, the total rice area decreased to 171,474.3 km2 in 2019. The results showed that relatively stable SCR mainly distributed in Anhui, Hubei, and Jiangsu provinces whereas DCR occurred in Guangdong, Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. DCR-to-SCR conversion occurred drastically in Hunan, Hubei, and Jiangxi provinces. Rice-to-non-rice conversion was more prevalent in Hunan and Hubei provinces. Detailed spatiotemporal information over 20 years suggested that the plans for agricultural resources utilization in some specific provinces should be proposed, which is of great significance for food security in the major rice-producing area in southern China.