Digital Device Usage Research Articles

중학생의 디지털 기기 활용 유형에 따른 학업, 심리 및 행동 특성

Objectives The purpose of this study was to analyze the types of digital device usage among middle school students in Busan and to explore their academic, psychological and emotional, and behavioral characteristics by the analyzed groups.
 Methods To achieve these goals, the study conducted a latent profile analysis based on data from the first year of middle school provided by the Busan Education Longitudinal Study(BELS) to classify the types of digital device use, and explore differences in student characteristics.
 Results First, we analyzed the types of digital device usage based on the amount of time spent on and the purpose for using smart devices and computers, and five groups were classified: Group 1 spent more time on computers and mainly for purposes other than studying. In addition, Group 1 spent more time on smart devices than other groups and used them for purposes other than studying. Group 2 used computers less than other groups and used smart devices mainly for studying. Group 3 was characterized by spending more time on computers and frequently using smart devices for study and non-study purposes than other groups. Group 4 was characterized by spending relatively little time on both computers and smart devices and using them less frequently, and Group 5 was characterized as using smart devices mainly. Second, we analyzed the differences in academic, emotional, and behavioral characteristics across the life of middle school students according to the type of digital device use, and found that there were significant differences among the potential groups.
 Conclusions Based on the results, this study suggested that it was necessary to devise appropriate interventions on the level and content of digital education for each type of digital device utilization and purpose of middle school students.

Postural supporting cervical traction workstation to improve resting state brain activity in digital device users: EEG study.

This study aimed to determine the effect of postural support workstation on inducing effective brain activity during rest. Thirty-five healthy digital overusers were recruited as participants. We conducted two interventions of head weight support traction (ST) and conventional traction (CT) strength on all participants in random order. Participants' arousal levels and psychological comfort were assessed. In addition, changes in brain activity caused by traction were confirmed by measuring changes in resting state brain activity using an electroencephalogram (EEG). Under the ST condition, psychological comfort improved while alert levels were maintained. In addition the resting brain activity of EEG was characterized by strong focused attention and relaxed activity, as evidenced by increased alpha waves throughout the brain. By contrast, in the CT condition, no significant improvement in comfort was observed. Furthermore, high-frequency brain activity, such as beta 3 and gamma waves, was observed across the entire brain regions. In this study, the ST workstation was shown to effectively improve resting attention and psychological comfort in individuals who excessively use digital devices by inducing resting state alpha activity without stimulating high-frequency brain waves, while maintaining an upright posture with appropriate traction.

Conformation of Horizontal Extraocular Muscle Insertions in Acute Acquired Concomitant Esotropia Induced by Excessive Digital Device Usage.

Acute acquired concomitant esotropia induced by excessive digital device usage, especially smartphones (SAACE), has been increasing over the past few years. Convergence spasm induced by excessive near work has been suggested as a mechanism. Anatomical differences could also potentially contribute to SAACE onset. The present study investigated the conformation of horizontal recti between SAACE patients and normal subjects. In 15 SAACE patients (SAACE group), the distances between the limbus and insertion of the horizontal recti (LI distance) and the widths of horizontal recti on the insertion (insertion width) were measured. The control group consisted of 30 patients who underwent retinal detachment surgery. Differences in LI distances and insertion widths were compared between SAACE and control groups. While there were no differences between the two groups for LI distances and insertion widths of lateral recti, there were significantly shorter LI distances for the medial recti in the SAACE group (P<0.05). Moreover, the SAACE group tended to exhibit larger insertion widths of the medial recti. Medial/lateral ratio of LI distances were significantly lower and insertion widths were significantly higher in the SAACE compared to the control group (P<0.05). Based on the observations of more anterior insertion and larger muscle widths, this suggests there are stronger forces of medial recti in SAACE. In addition to excessive accommodation followed by increases in medial recti tonus, the results also suggest that an anatomical imbalance between lateral and medial recti contributes to esotropia onset following excessive near work.

Assessing the role of visual dysfunctions in the association between visual symptomatology and the use of digital devices

PurposeTo evaluate the association between visual symptoms and use of digital devices considering the presence of visual dysfunctions. MethodsAn optometric examination was conducted in a clinical sample of 346 patients to diagnose any type of visual anomaly. Visual symptoms were collected using the validated SQVD questionnaire. A threshold of 6 hours per day was used to quantify the effects of digital device usage and patients were divided into two groups: under and above of 35 years old. A multivariate logistic regression was employed to investigate the association between digital device use and symptoms, with visual dysfunctions considered as a confounding variable. Crude and the adjusted odds ratio (OR) were calculated for each variable. Results57.02 % of the subjects reported visual symptoms, and 65.02% exhibited some form of visual dysfunction. For patients under 35 years old, an association was found between having visual symptoms and digital device use (OR = 2.10, p = 0.01). However, after adjusting for visual dysfunctions, this association disappeared (OR = 1.44, p = 0.27) and the association was instead between symptoms and refractive dysfunction (OR = 6.52, p < 0.001), accommodative (OR = 10.47, p < 0.001), binocular (OR = 6.68, p < 0.001) and accommodative plus binocular dysfunctions (OR = 46.84, p < 0.001). Among patients over 35 years old, no association was found between symptoms and the use of digital devices (OR = 1.27, p = 0.49) but there was an association between symptoms and refractive dysfunction (OR = 3.54, p = 0.001). ConclusionsVisual symptoms are not dependent on the duration of digital device use but rather on the presence of any type of visual dysfunction: refractive, accommodative and/or binocular one, which should be diagnosed.

Association Between Excessive Screen Time and Language Delay in Preschool Children

Background: Language is a fundamental medium for expression and comprehension of complex ideas and is acquired from early childhood through both receptive and expressive forms, such as spoken words or sign language. The initial years of life are critical for language development, and the rise of digital device usage during this period prompts an investigation into its potential impact. Objective: This study aims to explore the connection between excessive screen time and language delay in preschool children, a subject of increasing relevance in the digital age. Methods: A cross-sectional approach was taken, gathering data from the caregivers of 318 preschool children in Lahore, using the Ages and Stages Questionnaires-3 (ASQ-3) to measure developmental milestones. SPSS version 23 was employed for statistical analysis. Results: The study included 318 participants, with a gender distribution of 218 females (68.6%) and 100 males (31.4%). In terms of device usage, 209 children (65.7%) used mobile phones, while 91 (28.6%) watched television, and 18 (5.7%) played video games. Regarding screen time duration, 65 children (20.4%) used devices for 1-3 hours, 105 (33.0%) for 3-6 hours, 113 (35.5%) for 6-9 hours, and 35 (11.0%) for more than 9 hours. Notably, for children with over 9 hours of screen time, only 27% met their language developmental milestones at 33 months, which reduced with age, culminating in just 20.1% meeting milestones by 60 months. Conclusion: The study's findings suggest a significant negative correlation between excessive screen time and language development in preschool children, with a clear trend of decreasing milestone achievement with increased screen time. This highlights the need for strategic interventions to manage screen time in early childhood.

Impact of Children's Digital Device Usage on Their Cognitive Function: A Comprehensive Literature Analysis

This paper comprehensively reviews and analyzes relevant literature on the use of digital devices and children's cognitive development, exploring the impact of children's digital device usage on their cognitive function. The analysis reveals that prolonged use of digital devices can have negative effects on children's cognitive development, such as attention issues, delayed language development, and decreased learning abilities. However, appropriate and targeted use of digital devices can positively enhance children's cognitive development, including improving attention, expanding language skills, and enhancing learning and memory. Based on the research findings, the paper provides the following recommendations: improving the digital environment to ensure children's healthy growth, creating a positive family environment, and enhancing training on the use of digital devices, as well as establishing guidelines for children's digital device usage.

랜덤포레스트(Random Forest)를 활용한 초·중·고등학생의 정보역량 영향요인 탐색

Objectives The main purpose of this study is to identify factors that improve information competency in elemen-tary, middle, and high school students and quantitatively evaluate their influence. For this purpose, the Random Forest algorithm among the ensemble series of machine learning was utilized. Random Forest is an ensemble technique based on decision trees that reduces the risk of overfitting and has high prediction accuracy and stabil-ity, so it is used in various research and practice. In this study, various variables that affect information competency were extracted based on survey data from elementary, middle, and high school students. Complex interactions between variables were analyzed, and key variables that had a particularly significant impact on information capa-bilities were identified. In addition, Shap Value was used to quantitatively evaluate the influence of each major var-iable, with the goal of clearly understanding the relative importance and influence of each variable.&#x0D; Methods To fulfill the objectives of this study, we used publicly available data from the National Information Agency, extracting data from 1,469 elementary, middle, and high school students for model training and evaluation. A total of 20 explanatory variables were selected, including information utilization, social relationships, and the level of usage of information-sharing services.&#x0D; Results The final model built in this study showed performance metrics of Accuracy 0.721, Precision 0.716, Recall 0.723, and F1 Score 0.711. The key influencing variables were identified as digital device usage efficacy, attitudes toward digital technology, information utilization, social relationships and information-sharing services, social capital, information production and sharing levels, usage level of lifestyle services, and digital enablers.&#x0D; Conclusions The advent of the digital society due to the Fourth Industrial Revolution has made information literacy an essential core competency, playing a crucial role in enhancing individual learning capabilities as well as general competitiveness in everyday life. According to the results of this study, in order to improve the information literacy of elementary, middle, and high school students, education in software and hardware (SW·HW), training in in-formation reproduction through digital device usage, and fostering a positive attitude toward digital technology are necessary.

The Effect of Digital Gaming Duration on Musculoskeletal System Symptoms: A Systematic Study

The aim of this study is to review the existing literature on the musculoskeletal system symptoms associated with digital gaming. Literature related to the subject was searched in Web of Knowledge, PubMed, Medline, PsycINFO, Proquest, Google Scholar, and Sport Discuss databases. Articles published from 2010 to 2022 were scanned using keywords describing digital gaming-related postural disturbances, and musculoskeletal system exposure (pain, muscle activity). The articles were independently scanned by three authors, the relevant data were extracted, and the methodological quality of the included studies was evaluated. A total of 1252 articles were scanned for eligibility. Eleven articles are included in the study. Systematic reviews and meta-analysis studies were not included in our study. A wide range of prevalence rates of musculoskeletal complaints in different body regions has been reported, with the highest prevalence commonly found in neck complaints. This review has only found some evidence showing that a neck flexion posture as well as the frequency of digital gaming are associated with musculoskeletal disorders and pain, postural disorders among users of digital devices. The findings were presented and discussed in relation to the effects of digital games on posture and the musculoskeletal system. There is limited evidence that digital gaming and its various aspects (occupancy and properties) are associated with musculoskeletal system symptoms and exposures. Therefore, it is considered that evidence-based guidelines should be presented by experts for the wise use of digital games.

The Challenge of Teaching in the Digital Era: Computer Visual Syndrome in Basic Education Teachers

Objective: At present, technology has become an indispensable tool in the educational field, especially for basic education teachers who face a growing digitalization of the educational environment. However, this change towards digital is not exempt from consequences, and one of the emerging challenges is computer visual syndrome, which can affect its quality of life. Therefore, the objective of this research was to evaluate the presence of computer visual syndrome in teachers of four Peruvian educational institutions of basic education. Method: The research approach was quantitative; the design was non-experimental and the type was a cross-sectional descriptive. The sample was made up of 161 teachers who were given the Computer Visual Syndrome Questionnaire (CVS-Q), an instrument with adequate levels of reliability and validity. Results: The results indicate that the level of computer visual syndrome of 47.8% of teachers was mild, 32.9% was moderate and 19.3% were severe. Similarly, it was found that the symptoms suffered by teachers were most frequently itching, burning or sensation of burning of the eyes, dry eye, feeling of having a foreign body in the eye and heaviness in the eyelids. On the other hand, it was found that visual computer syndrome was significantly associated with the daily digital device usage time, to have pre-existing eye diseases and the implementation of preventive strategies. Conclusions: In the present research, it was concluded that the predominant level of computer vision syndrome in teachers was low. Therefore, the implementation of awareness programs and the application of ergonomic measures to improve the visual health of teachers are suggested.

YOGA eye exercises and Refractive Errors

The article delves into the prevalent issue of refractive errors, a common visual problem affecting a substantial portion of the global population, and particularly emphasizes its growing occurrence among school-going children. The surge in digital device usage due to the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified concerns, as extended screen time contributes in worsening the existing problem of poor vision. The article underscores the multifaceted impact of unaddressed refractive errors on children, including hindered academic performance, impaired social interactions, and a sedentary lifestyle. Socioeconomic and demographic factors play a role in the prevalence of refractive errors, with limited access to eye care services disproportionately affecting lower-income families. The importance of early diagnosis and intervention is highlighted to prevent unwanted consequences. A significant portion of the article explores the potential role of yoga in mitigating refractive errors. Yoga's holistic approach, incorporating eye exercises, mindfulness, stress reduction, and outdoor practice, offers promise in promoting eye health. While acknowledging that yoga may not correct refractive errors, the article emphasizes its potential to reduce eye strain caused by screen time and near-work activities, ultimately fostering healthier habits and overall well-being in children. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for complementary practices alongside standard eye care to ensure children's visual health and academic success while suggesting that embracing yoga could be a step toward safeguarding children's eye health and quality of life.

Digital Display Preference of Electronic Gadgets for Visual Comfort: A Systematic Review.

Digital devices such as smartphones, tablets, computers, and laptops are used for various purposes. The digital display quality has been improved, making it less tiring and more favoured among users. This study aimed to review the visual comfort of digital devices and the preferences of digital display settings that enhance the visual comfort experienced by digital device users. A search of PubMed, EBSCO host MEDLINE Complete, Scopus database, Google Scholar, and manual citation review was conducted, covering the period between 2010 and 2022. The criteria were selected based on the PRISMA statements. The search mainly focused on finding the existing literature on digital devices that contribute to visual discomfort and digital device settings that provide better visual comfort. The database search resulted in 533 references via the application of Microsoft Excel. There were 28 studies included in the final assessment. Twelve studies accounted for digital devices that contributed to visual discomfort, while another sixteen studies for digital device settings provided better visual comfort. Digital displays with high luminance contrast, positive polarity and adequate colour were preferred for better visual comfort. Meanwhile, smaller fonts were preferred for desktops and laptops, while larger fonts were favoured for smartphones. This study provides insights for digital display developers to learn and improve their display technology to fit the preferences expressed.

Understanding quality of life in digital device users who are treated with systane complete preservative free

PurposeTo treat symptomatic digital device users with Systane COMPLETE Multi-Dose Preservative-Free (MDPF) 4 times per day to determine how regular use of this drop impacts a participant’s quality of life and ocular surface symptoms. Methods and MethodsThis was a masked, prospective, 2-week, 2-visit study. Adults (>18 years old) who used digital devices ≥8 h/day and who self-reported digital eye strain were recruited. The Impact of Dry Eye on Everyday Life questionnaire’s Quality of Life module (IDEEL-QoL; Daily Activities, Feelings, and Work domains) was used in this study. Participants were required to have symptomatic IDEEL-QoL Work domain scores (≤80) and Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI) scores between 13 and 32 (inclusive) to be included in this study. ResultsA total of 30 participants with a median (interquartile range [IQR]) age of 25.0 (3.0) years were recruited and completed the study (83% female). Subject drop use did not significantly differ across study days (median = 4 drops/day [IQR = 0–1]; p = 0.59). IDEEL-QoL Daily Activities, Feelings, and Work domain scores and OSDI scores were significantly improved at the 2-week visit compared to the baseline visit (all <0.001). The primary digital devices used by the participants were computers and smartphones. Participants had an overall positive response regarding the efficacy and tolerability of the study drops. ConclusionUsing Systane COMPLETE MDPF can significantly improve a symptomatic digital device user’s quality of life and dry eye symptom scores when used approximately 4 times/day.

Preventative Effects of Cordyceps cicadae Mycelial Extracts on the Early-Stage Development of Cataracts in UVB-Induced Mice Cataract Model.

Cataracts, a prevalent age-related eye condition, pose a significant global health concern, with rising rates due to an aging population and increased digital device usage. In Taiwan, cataract prevalence is particularly high, reaching up to 90% among individuals aged 70 and above. The lens of the eye absorbs short-wave light, which can lead to oxidative stress in lens epithelial cells and contribute to cataract formation. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light further exacerbates the risk of cataracts by generating reactive oxygen species. Heat-shock proteins (HSPs), involved in protein maintenance and repair, have been linked to cataract development. Cordyceps cicadae (C. cicadae), a traditional Chinese medicine, has a long history of use and is known for its pharmacological effects. N6-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine (HEA), a bioactive compound found in C. cicadae, exhibits anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and neuroprotective properties. Previous studies have shown that C. cicadae mycelial extracts improve dry eye disease and reduce intraocular pressure in animal models. Additionally, C. cicadae possesses antioxidant properties, which are beneficial for combating cataract formation. In this study, we aim to evaluate the preventive efficacy of C. cicadae mycelial extracts in UV-induced cataract development. By investigating the ameliorative effects of C. cicadae on eye diseases and its potential role in ocular health improvement, we hope to uncover new options for cataract prevention and provide insights into the mechanisms of action. The findings of this research could provide a novel approach for nutritional supplements targeting cataract prevention, offering potential benefits in the field of ocular health.

Digital Experience Among Faculty and Students in One Midwest University

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic shifted the daily operations of society from in-person to a digital environment. While connectivity has innumerable benefits, research is revealing the negative effects of hyperconnectivity on mental health. Digital burnout appears to be the cost for this advancement. Students and faculty members are mostly impacted with digital burnout. The purposes of this project were to 1) to compare digital device usage before and during the pandemic between faculty and students, 2) examine digital competencies, digital burnout, and digital resilience between faculty and students from one Midwest university. A descriptive, cross-sectional study design was conducted. A convenience sample of faculty and students from the all programs at our university were surveyed. A Digital Experience Scale was adapted by the researchers to evaluate digital usage, level of confidence, and level of digital resilience in adapting to digital technology. The 24-item Digital Burnout Scale (DBS) was also used to assess digital burnout. The DBS measures three subscales – digital aging, digital deprivation, and emotional exhaustion. The total score ranges from 24 to 120, with higher scores indicating higher levels of digital burnout. The survey was administered via RedCap. IRB was submitted and was granted exempt status. Data from 194 respondents were included in analysis. Cohort was comprised mostly of students (80%), 76% females, 83% whites and 72% were undergraduate students. The overall mean age was 33.8 (SD=14.7). There was a significant difference in age between faculty and students. Cohort reported above average and very high ability in use of technology. The overall mean DBS score of all participants was 64.7 (SD=19.2). The mean “digital aging”, “digital deprivation”, and “emotional exhaustion” subscale scores of 33.8 (SD=10.7), 16.1 (SD=5.7), and 15.0 (SD=5.6), respectively. There were significant differences in the total scores and three subscales between faculty and students. Both faculty and students were able to adapt the use of technology during the pandemic. The study showed that faculty and students at a Midwestern University have above-average digital burnout levels; however, they were able to adapt to the use of technology.

Determinants of digital eye strain among university students in a district of India: a cross-sectional study.

Digital device usage, especially during the pandemic, has catapulted into a new age problem, the computer vision syndrome. This study aimed to quantify the prevalence and determinants of digital eye strain (DES). A total of 345 university students in India were surveyed in June-July 2022, by a validated tool, the Computer Vision Syndrome Questionnaire (CVS-Q) © in this cross-sectional study. According to American Optometric Association, digital eye strain and computer vision syndrome are synonyms. Non-parametric tests of medians were used to compare the median DES scores, Chi square test to compare categorical variables, and binary logistic regression to find the determinants of DES. The average age of the study participants was 21.0 ± 2.2 years, ranging between 18-26 years with 52.8% females and 47.2% males. The prevalence of DES was 45.5% (CI95% = 40.2%-50.8%). Any existing eye disease (p-value= 0.000, OR= 0.41, 95% CI= 0.26-0.65), average daily screen time (p-value= 0.001, OR = 1.61, 95% CI = 1.22-2.13) and using gadgets in the dark (p-value= 0.000, OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.23-0.61) were significant determinants of the same. Framing guidelines limiting the hours allotted for online classes for university students are imperative, with promotion of ergonomic practices for digital device usage such as blue light filters and night mode on devices.

“The &lt;em&gt;Internet of Life&lt;/em&gt;”

“The &lt;em&gt;Internet of Life&lt;/em&gt;”

Prevalence and associated factors for self-reported symptoms of dry eye among Thai school children during the COVID-19 outbreak.

COVID-19 pandemic caused an increase in digital screen time, which seemed to increase the prevalence of dry eye symptoms among the population with abnormally high digital screen usage hours. However, there are no reports of dry eye symptoms in school children with high digital usage hours. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence of dry eye symptoms and evaluate the associated factors among school children aged 12 to 18 years during the COVID-19 outbreak. Multistage cluster sampling was applied, and six sections of online questionnaires were distributed to selected respondents in November 2021. The odds ratio (OR) with confidence intervals (CIs) for the factors was calculated using binary logistic regression. All statistical significance was determined at p < 0.05. The findings revealed that 62.5% of 603 students showed symptoms of dry eye (DEQ-5 score ≥ 6). Significant associated factors included being female (adjusted OR (aOR) 1.54; 95% CIs 1.05-2.25), higher-grade student (aOR 1.77; 95% CIs 1.23-2.57), digital screen time use (6 to < 12 hours: aOR 2.00; 95% CIs 1.12-3.57, ≥12 hours: aOR 2.54; 95% CIs 1.39-4.76), and perceived stress (aOR 1.12; 95% CIs 1.08-1.16). The Thai-Perceived Stress Scale-10 scores were positively correlated with the scores on the 5-item dry eye questionnaire (Spearman's r = 0.38, p-value < 0.01). A high prevalence of dry eye symptoms might be common among school children during the COVID-19 outbreak. Significant risk factors include being female, being a higher-grade level student, prolonged use of digital screens, and perceived stress. However, contact lens use, smoking, and the most common digital device usage patterns were not found to be contributing factors.

Faktor Risiko Keluhan Digital Eye Strain Pada Mahasiswa Karena Peningkatan Penggunaan Perangkat Digital di Masa Pembelajaran Daring

Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, learning method is conducted through online learning and the number of students who use digital device is increasing. The purpose of this study was to determine the risk factors of DES in Informatic Engineering student of Polytechnic C. This research used cross-sectional design, was conducted in February-June 2022 on 90 respondents of Informatic Engineering of Polytechnic C students 2018-2021. The data was analyzed using univariate, bivariate, and multivariate methods. The result showed the highest score of DES was 102, lowest score was 5, and average score was 36.26. 54,6% of the respondents were male, 95,6% used digital device for &gt;4 hour, 52,2% did not use glasses when using digital devices, 94,4% not doing eye rest, 76,7% used digital devices in non-ergonomic position, 70,0% used digital devices with risky viewing angle, and 83,3% used digital devices with risky vision distance. There were differences of DES between the duration of digital device usage &gt;4 and ?4 hour (p=0.033), ergonomic and non-ergonomic position (p=0.022) and risky and non-risky angle of digital device usage (p=0.033). There were no differences of DES between gender (p=0.251), using and not using glasses (p=0.932), doing and not doing eye rest (p=0.543), and risky and non-risky vision distance (p=0.426). The position of digital device usage has the most influence on DES (B=-15.521). It is recommended for students when using digital devices to practice ergonomics position.

Dry eye symptoms and digital eyestrain - Emerging epidemics among university students due to online curriculum amid the COVID-19 pandemic. A cross-sectional study.

Increased screen time has been a major concern among the students who have adopted the online curriculum amid the pandemic. The study was conducted to shed light on the changing trends of symptoms pertaining to dry eye disease and digital eyestrain due to the online curriculum and its negative implications on the ocular health of students. A cross-sectional study was conducted among students of Manipal Academy of Higher Education who are currently following the E-learning curriculum amid the COVID-19 pandemic the participants were surveyed using a pre-validated structured questionnaire. The mean age of study participants was 23.33 ± 4.604 years. In total, 97.9% (321/352) of the respondents experienced at least three symptoms associated with the usage of digital devices. 88.1% of the participants were exposed to an average screen time of more than 4 hours per day. An increased number of hours of digital device usage was found to be associated with higher total symptom scores (P = 0.04). The total symptom scores were found to be considerably higher for those with continuous contact with the screen (P = 0.02). Headache (69.9%, n = 246) is the most commonly reported symptom followed by neck pain (65.3%, n = 230), tearing (44.6%, n = 157), eye pain (40.9%, n = 144), and burning sensation (40.1%, n = 141). This study highlights a tremendous increase in the prevalence of symptoms related to dry eye and digital eyestrain among students attending online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eye care professionals need to be aware of this emerging public health threat and the appropriate measures for its prevention.

Voluntariness and type of digital device usage: A study in terms of Vygotsky's cultural-historical perspective.

In recent years, exposure to digital devices during the development stages of a child has been steadily increasing. Exploring the relationship between children's digital device exposure and their voluntariness still shows quite contradictory results. Screen time is the most studied factor on this issue. The purpose of the present study was to suggest the type of digital device used is another factor in addition to screen time. In accordance with the research hypothesis, the use of digital devices as a psychological means is related to higher voluntariness scores. The study sample was recruited from Moscow kindergartens and schools: preschoolers aged 5-6 years (n = 408) and 6-7 years (n = 351) and schoolchildren aged 7-8 years (n = 253) and 9-10 years (n = 101). The study participants took part in a voluntariness assessment performed via executive functions' (EF) evaluation as well as in a semi-structured interview to identify the type and frequency of digital device usage. There are three findings of the present study, which are given as follows. First, the "frequency of digital device usage" predictor proved its statistical significance for verbal working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility at 7-8 years, and for verbal working memory at 6-7 years. Second, the number of children who use digital devices as a psychological means increases as they grow older. Third, the number of children who use digital devices as a psychological means tends to demonstrate higher mean scores for any executive function skills at 6-7 and 9-10 years and for visual and verbal working memory at 7-8 years. Multiple regression models did not confirm the significance of the "type of digital devices usage" predictor for executive function skills considering the participants' individual characteristics. "Type of digital devices usage" predictor is assumed to be more applicable to children at the end of primary school and older when exploring executive function skills in the context of children's digital device exposure.